<p>The Arcade in downtown Cleveland, Ohio, is a Victorian-era structure of two nine-story buildings, joined by a five-story arcade with a glass skylight spanning over 300 feet , along the four balconies. Erected in 1890, at a cost of $867,000 , the Arcade opened on Memorial Day , and is identified as one of the earliest indoor shopping arcades in the United States. The Arcade was modified in 1939, remodeling the Euclid Avenue entrance and adding some structural support. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1975.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Arcade was built in 1890 by Detroit Bridge Co., run by Stephen V. Harkness. Designed by John Eisenmann and George H. Smith, the Arcade is one of the few remaining arcades of its kind in the United States. Modeled after the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II located in Milan, the Arcade comprises two nine-story towers with a skylight, 100 feet (30 m) high, made of 1,800 panes of glass spanning over 300 feet (91 m). The construction was financed by John D. Rockefeller, Stephen V. Harkness, Marcus Hanna, Charles F. Brush and several other wealthy Clevelanders of the day.</p><br>
<p>The Arcade is a cross between a lighted court and a commercial shopping street. The building is a complex of three structures: two nine-story office buildings facing out to Euclid and Superior Avenues, connected via the five-story iron-and-glass-enclosed arcade. The Richardsonian arched entrance of Hummelstown brownstone along Superior Avenue is original, but the Euclid Avenue front was remodeled in 1939 by the firm of Walker and Weeks. The level of the Superior Avenue entrance is about 12 ft lower than the Euclid entrance, so that there are two bottom arcade floors, joined by staircases at each end. Since Euclid and Superior avenues are not parallel, a passage leads, at a 23-degree angle, off the Euclid entrance to a rotunda at the southern end of the Arcade. The arcade itself is a 300 ft-long covered light court, ringed by four levels of balconies, which step back above the Euclid Avenue level. The vertical lines of the columns, rising nearly 100 feet (33 m) to the glass roof, create a spacious domed interior.</p><br>
<p>The Arcade&#39;s design inspired a similar shopping arcade in Atlanta called the Peachtree Arcade, which was constructed in the 1910s.</p><br>
<p>In 2001, the Hyatt corporation redeveloped the Arcade into Clevelands first Hyatt Regency hotel. The Hyatt Regency occupies the two towers and the top three floors of the atrium area. The two lower floors of the atrium area remain open to the public with retail merchants and a food court. In addition, the Hyatts lobby and offices are located near the Superior Avenue entrance. That same year, the skylight was also replaced.</p><br>
<p>Nashville City Cemetery is the oldest public cemetery in Nashville, Tennessee. Many of Nashville&#39;s prominent historical figures are buried there. It includes the tombs of 22,000 people, 6,000 of whom were African Americans.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Nashville City Cemetery was opened on January 1, 1822. By 1850, over 11,000 people were buried there. In 1958, Nashville Mayor Ben West led an effort to restore and preserve the cemetery. In 1972, it was listed in the National Register of Historic Places due to its historical and architectural significance.</p><br>
<p>Among those interred in the cemetery are two of Nashvilles founders, four Confederate generals, one Tennessee Governor, and twenty-two mayors of Nashville. Also buried there are numerous soldiers, schoolteachers, former slaves, early civic leaders, and other interesting citizens of Nashville. Sea Captain William Driver, who coined the name "Old Glory" for his ships USA Flag and hid that famous flag during the Civil War, is buried here. By 2017, the cemetery included the tombs of approximately 22,000 people, 6,000 of which were African Americans. On March 4, 2017, Elias Polk and Matilda Polk, who were enslaved by President James K. Polk, had their tombstones replaced as part of an effort to recognize more African-Americans buried at the cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Nashville City Cemetery is located near downtown Nashville at 1001 4th Avenue South.</p><br>
<h2>Notable buried</h2><br>
<p>Lt. Lipscomb Norvell – Revolutionary War Soldier and father of US Senator John Norvell.</p><br>
<p>Samuel R. Anderson – Confederate brigadier general in the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>Gen. Felix Kirk Zollicoffer – Confederate general, USA Congressman, journalist, Tennessee militiaman.</p><br>
<p>Washington Barrow – USA Charges d&#39;Affaires to Portugal; USA Congressman from 1847 to 1849.</p><br>
<p>William Carroll – Governor of Tennessee from 1821 to 1827 and again from 1829 to 1835.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Claiborne – USA Congressional Representative from 1817 to 1819.</p><br>
<p>Charles Dickinson – Killed by Andrew Jackson in 1806 duel.</p><br>
<p>William Driver – Coined the name Old Glory for the USA flag in 1831.</p><br>
<p>Richard S. Ewell – Civil War Confederate General, corps commander, Army of Northern Virginia.</p><br>
<p>Francis Fogg – Developed Nashville&#39;s public school system in 1852.</p><br>
<p>Harlan Howard – Prolific American songwriter, principally in country music.</p><br>
<p>Mabel Imes and Ella Sheppard – two of the original Fisk Jubilee Singers.</p><br>
<p>John Patton Erwin – Mayor of Nashville from 1821 to 1822, and from 1834 to 1835.</p><br>
<p>Alexander Porter – USA Senator who represented Louisiana.</p><br>
<p>Felix Robertson – Mayor of Nashville from 1818 to 1819, and from 1827 to 1829.</p><br>
<p>Anne Robertson Johnson Cockrill – pioneer.</p><br>
<p>James Robertson and his wife, Charlotte Robertson – two of the founders of Nashville (then called Fort Nashborough)</p><br>
<p>Wilkins F. Tannehill – Mayor of Nashville from 1825 to 1827.</p><br>
<p>Charles Clay Trabue – Member of the Missouri House of Representatives from 1824 to 1828 and Mayor of Nashville from 1839 to 1841.</p><br>
<p>Ben West – 62nd Mayor of Nashville from 1951 to 1963.</p><br>
<p>Elias Polk – Enslaved body servant to James K. Polk and later political activist.</p><br>
<p>Oakland Cemetery is one of the largest cemetery green spaces in Atlanta, Georgia, USA Founded as Atlanta Cemetery in 1850 on six acres  of land southeast of the city, it was renamed in 1872 to reflect the large number of oak and magnolia trees growing in the area. By that time, the city had grown and the cemetery had enlarged correspondingly to the current 48 acre. Since then, Atlanta has continued to expand so that the cemetery is now located in the center of the city. Oakland is an excellent example of a Victorian-style cemetery, and reflects the "garden cemetery" movement started and exemplified by Mount Auburn Cemetery in Massachusetts.</p><br>
<p>The original 6 acre of Oakland remains one of the oldest historical plots of land in Atlanta, most of the rest of the city having been burned in 1864. Because of its age and location, the cemetery directly reflects the history and changing culture of the City of Atlanta and the significant events it has seen. Names of Atlanta streets, buildings, parks, subdivisions, and more can be found within the cemetery gates. An estimated 70,000 people are interred at Oakland, and while the last plots were sold in 1884, there are still regular burials today. These are largely conducted on family-owned plots or areas owned by Atlanta (one of the most recent being former mayor Maynard Jackson, whose plot was contributed by the city).</p><br>
<h2>Sections</h2><br>
<h3>Original 6 acre</h3><br>
<p>Immediately upon entering the gates of Oakland is found the original 6 acre purchased for use as the Atlanta Cemetery in 1850. The gates and perimeter walls were not erected until 1896, the date engraved on the keystone of the gates highest arch. After a short distance along a brick walkway, Oaklands first resident since its establishment can be found. Dr. James Nissen was a medical doctor visiting Atlanta who fell ill and died in 1850. Legend has it that Dr. Nissen shared a common fear of the day, being buried alive. Therefore, before his death he asked that his jugular vein be cut prior to his burial to ensure he did not wake up later under the ground. Being the oldest grave in Oakland since its designation as a city cemetery, Nissen&#39;s headstone is nearly completely worn away by the passage of time and the elements. The inscription is only known due to an extensive survey of Atlanta cemeteries performed in the 1930s by Franklin Garrett. Back towards the main gates of Oakland on a plot donated by the City of Atlanta lies Martha Lumpkin Compton. The daughter of Governor Wilson Lumpkin, from 1843 until 1845 Atlanta was known as "Marthasville" in her honor.</p><br>
<p>The first thing many people notice when entering the gates of Oakland is the mausoleum of Jasper Newton Smith, on which sits a striking life-size statue of Smith himself. Smith was a businessman and real estate investor who rose to prominence in post-war Reconstruction Era Atlanta. Smith was well known for refusing to wear a necktie due to a bad experience as a child. Therefore, one story describing the creation of his statue notes that when the artist sculpted him wearing a cravat, Smith refused to pay until the offending item had been chiseled off. Another story notes that Smith once travelled to the cemetery to personally remove a vine that had wrapped around the neck of the statue.</p><br>
<p>Farther into this section the Kontz Memorial and the Neal Monument, two sculptures showing vastly different styles of artistry, can be seen. The latter is an example of Neoclassical art and imagery, while the former is Oakland&#39;s only known example of Egyptian Revival. Also to be found in the original 6 acre is a small area of land marking the old Jewish section. This area was bought by the Hebrew Benevolent Congregation (which later bought more land in the expanded cemetery) and is the second oldest Jewish burial ground in the state of Georgia, preceded by a colonial Jewish cemetery in Savannah.</p><br>
<p>Also resting in the original 6 acre is Robert Tyre "Bobby" Jones, an Atlanta-native amateur golfer known for first winning The Double. His grave can always be found with golf balls and other paraphernalia relating to the sport. The immediate area surrounding Jones grave is adorned by all eighteen flower-bearing plants that are the namesakes of the holes on the Augusta National course. Franklin Garrett, a man dubbed "Atlantas Official Historian" who extensively cataloged Atlanta&#39;s history as well as many of the graves at Oakland and other Atlanta-area cemeteries also rests in the original 6 acre.</p><br>
<p>While walking throughout the original 6 acre, and indeed much of the entire cemetery, many visitors will notice a lack of ironwork which is uncommon to a cemetery from Oaklands era. This is due to the City of Atlantas contribution of much of the original ironwork in Oakland to the USA government for use in producing arms during World War I.</p><br>
<h3>Confederate section</h3><br>
<p>The Confederate section of Oakland is home to an estimated 6,900 burials, of which about 3,000 are unknown. During the Civil War, Atlanta was a major transportation and medical center for the Southern states. Since several of the largest military hospitals in the area were within a half mile (800 m) from Oakland, many soldiers who died from their wounds were buried here. Shortly after the war ended, a few thousand fallen soldiers from the Atlanta Campaign who were previously buried in battleground graves were moved to the Confederate grounds in Oakland. The area is marked by a large monument known as the Confederate Obelisk. This 65 foot (20 m) tall obelisk is made from granite quarried from Stone Mountain and was dedicated on April 26, 1874, the anniversary of Joseph E. Johnston&#39;s surrender to William Sherman. For a number of years, the Confederate Obelisk was the tallest structure in Atlanta. To the northwest, very close to the obelisk itself, are buried four Confederate generals, John B. Gordon, Lucius J. Gartrell, Clement A. Evans, and Alfred Iverson, Jr. To the south of the obelisk is a large section of marked military graves. Of special note are the 16 marked graves of Union soldiers that are buried alongside Confederate soldiers. This practice was very uncommon at the time, but was likely done at Oakland due to dwindling burial space. Formerly located in the Confederate section was the Lion of the Confederacy, or Lion of Atlanta. The lion sculpture was removed by the City of Atlanta on August 18, 2021, after repeated vandalism. The lion, which guarded a field containing the remains of unknown Confederate dead, was commissioned by the Atlanta Ladies Memorial Association and carved by T. M. Brady in 1894 out of the largest piece of marble quarried from north Georgia up to that time. Though Brady claimed that the design was original, with a few exceptions it is actually a near copy of the Swiss Lion of Lucerne.</p><br>
<h3>New Jewish section</h3><br>
<p>Located relatively close to the old Jewish section contained in the original 6 acre, the plots designated as the "new" Jewish section were acquired by the Hebrew Benevolent Congregation in 1878 and 1892. The burial sites, and the headstones and monuments marking them, reflect the blending of the German-Jewish culture of which the Benevolent Congregation was primarily comprised, and the American culture that the community had adopted. In contrast to this cultural blending are the resting places of members of the Ahavath Achim Synagogue, to which the Benevolent Congregation sold some of the plots. Members of the Ahavath Achim Synagogue were mostly Eastern European Jewish immigrants who were much more Orthodox. Unlike the Benevolent Congregation, the Synagogue sought to preserve their traditional culture and to avoid cultural blending. This is evident in the grave sites of members of the Synagogue, which are identifiable by their use of the Hebrew language and engravings of traditional Jewish symbols. In more recent years, the new Jewish section fell victim to vandalism by two teenaged locals in 1982.</p><br>
<h3>Potter&#39;s Field</h3><br>
<p>Potters Field is a 7.5 acre (3 hectare) area that is traditionally designated for burial of those without the means to purchase a plot of land. Beyond the outer wall bordering the field is the former Fulton Bag and Cotton Mill (since renovated into loft apartments) and Cabbagetown, both constructed by Jacob Elsas, who is buried in the new Jewish section. By 1884 all of the traditional plots at Oakland had been sold. This meant that peoples only options for burial at Oakland were to either buy a plot from a private owner or be buried in Potters Field, and records show that many people opted for the latter. Potters Field makes a significant contribution to the number of residents at Oakland, as indicated by a 1978 archaeological survey conducted by Georgia State University that revealed the entire area to be occupied by an estimated 17,000 persons.</p><br>
<h3>Black section</h3><br>
<p>This section of the cemetery is a testament to the period of history during which segregation was at its height in the United States. The entire cemetery reflects the great cultural changes that occurred in Atlanta during its service; from the Jim Crow era exhibited by the segregated black section to the modern era that strives for social equality, as shown by the recent burial of Maynard Jackson on a plot in the original 6 acre of Oakland. One striking feature that visitors will notice is that the black section, similarly to the adjoining Potter&#39;s Field, lacks a great deal of headstones, monuments, and grave markers in general. This is because many grave markers here were made of wood and other biodegradable materials. These markers have succumbed to the passing of time and as a result have rendered a large portion of the grave sites in the black section unknown. Despite the social difficulties that had to be overcome by African-Americans living in the Southern states at the time, there are several outstanding black figures buried at Oakland who made significant contributions to the history of Atlanta. Some of these include Bishop Wesley John Gaines, Reverend Frank Quarles (an early benefactor of Morehouse College), Carrie Steele Logan, and Antoine Graves, the owner of the only mausoleum in the black section.</p><br>
<h3>Bell Tower</h3><br>
<p>Before the Bell Tower was constructed in 1899, a farmhouse owned by James E. Williams, who would later be mayor of Atlanta, stood in the spot. From this location, General John B. Hood directed Confederate forces in the Battle of Atlanta on July 22, 1864. The Bell Tower building as it stands today was originally the sextons office and living quarters. Atop the tower is a bell that was formerly used to signal for workers to gather at that location, and for funerals. The basement was used as a vault for storing coffins awaiting burial. In 1998 the Bell Tower building saw extensive restoration and now serves as the offices of the Historic Oakland Foundation as well as the cemeterys visitor center.</p><br>
<h3>Monuments and mausolea</h3><br>
<p>Sitting atop a hill near the original 6 acre is the Austell Mausoleum, likely the most elaborate in Oakland. The mausoleum was constructed by Alfred Austell, one of the founders of Atlanta National Bank, in the Gothic Revival style. The Austell Mausoleum cost around $90,000 to build in the 1880s, and is estimated to cost over $3 million to replace by todays standards. Another notable burial on the original 6 acre is the rose-adorned site of the Marsh family, on which Margaret Mitchell Marsh, author of Gone with the Wind, rests. Near the Marsh grave is a gas lamp that was one of the original 50 installed by the Atlanta Gas Light company in 1856. The lamp, which bears scars from the shelling of Atlanta in 1864, was donated to the cemetery by Franklin Miller Garrett. The keen observer might notice that the plaque that describes the gas lamps history incorrectly dates the lamp to 1850.</p><br>
<h2>Historic Oakland Foundation</h2><br>
<p>Since Oakland is not and was never a perpetual care cemetery, maintenance of grave sites was the responsibility of the families of the interred. Of course, time sees the movement of families and the general disconnection with ancestors as generations pass. Because of this, many grave sites have fallen into disrepair from neglect and sometimes vandalism. Therefore, shortly after Oakland was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 28, 1976, the Historic Oakland Foundation was established. The Foundation has overseen the restoration and upkeep of many grave sites, monuments, mausolea, and buildings that had been affected by the ravages of time. Their activity, which is supported by donations, grants, and special events, continues today as they maintain and restore the cemetery as well as provide guided tours of the grounds.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>27 former Atlanta mayors, including:</p><br>
<p>Ivan Allen, Jr.</p><br>
<p>Moses Formwalt (Atlanta&#39;s first mayor)</p><br>
<p>Maynard Jackson (Atlanta&#39;s first African-American mayor)</p><br>
<p>S. B. Spencer</p><br>
<p>6 former Georgia governors:</p><br>
<p>Joseph E. Brown (1821-04-15 &ndash; 1894-11-30)</p><br>
<p>Joseph Mackey Brown (1851-12-28 &ndash; 1932-03-03)</p><br>
<p>John B. Gordon (1832-02-06 &ndash; 1904-01-09)</p><br>
<p>William J. Northen (1835-06-09 &ndash; 1913-03-25)</p><br>
<p>John Marshall Slaton (1866-12-25 &ndash; 1955-06-11)</p><br>
<p>Hoke Smith (1855-11-02 &ndash; 1931-11-27)</p><br>
<p>Confederate Generals:</p><br>
<p>Lucius J. Gartrell</p><br>
<p>Clement A. Evans (1833-02-25 &ndash; 1911-07-02)</p><br>
<p>John B. Gordon</p><br>
<p>Alfred Iverson, Jr.</p><br>
<p>William Ambrose Wright (1844 &ndash; 1929), Confederate lieutenant</p><br>
<p>Martha Wilson Lumpkin Compton (1827-08-25 &ndash; 1917-02-13), daughter of Governor Wilson Lumpkin and namesake of Marthasville, Atlanta&#39;s name from 1843 until approximately 1845</p><br>
<p>William Fuller, Jefferson Cain, and Anthony Murphy, Western & Atlantic Railroad employees involved in the Great Locomotive Chase</p><br>
<p>Bishop Wesley John Gaines (1840-10-04 &ndash; 1912-01-12), Bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Church and founder of Morris Brown College.</p><br>
<p>Franklin Miller Garrett (1906-09-25 &ndash; 2000-03-05), Atlanta historian notable for his extensive survey of Atlanta cemeteries. He was dubbed "Atlanta&#39;s Official Historian" and is buried on commons ground on a plot donated by the City of Atlanta.</p><br>
<p>Joel Hurt, founder of Inman Park and Druid Hills, two of Atlanta&#39;s first planned subdivisions</p><br>
<p>Dr. Joseph Jacobs, owner of the pharmacy where John Pemberton first sold Coca-Cola as a soft drink</p><br>
<p>Bobby Jones (1902-03-17 &ndash; 1971-12-18), the only golfer to win the Grand Slam, the USA Amateur, USA Open, British Amateur and The Open Championship in the same year</p><br>
<p>Carrie Steele Logan (c. 1829 &ndash; 1900-11-03), founder of the first black orphanage in Georgia, now known as the Carrie Steele-Pitts Home. Kept orphans in a boxcar in the rail yard where she worked and brought them home with her at night.</p><br>
<p>Eugene Mitchell, lawyer and president of the Atlanta Board of Education</p><br>
<p>Margaret Mitchell Marsh, author of Gone with the Wind</p><br>
<p>Maybelle Stephens Mitchell, suffragist and activist</p><br>
<p>Reverend Frank Quarles, key figure in establishing Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary, which later became Spelman College</p><br>
<p>Morris and Emanuel Rich, founders of Rich&#39;s department store.</p><br>
<p>Edward A. Vincent, architect of Atlanta&#39;s first passenger depot and publisher of the first official map of the city (unmarked grave).</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Franklin White, shape note "singing master", and compiler of the shape note tunebook known as The Sacred Harp.</p><br>
<p>Alexander Stephens, Vice President of the Confederate States of America, was interred for a time at Oakland before being moved to his estate near Crawfordville.</p><br>
<p>Annie Fitzgerald Stephens, landowner and businesswoman, grandmother of Margaret Mitchell</p><br>
<p>Orelia Key Bell, poet, buried alongside her long-time friend, Ida Jane Ash.</p><br>
<p>Andrew Steiner, Holocaust survivor saved as many as 7,000 Slovakian Jews by convincing Nazi officials to create workshops staffed by Jews, renowned architect who developed master plan for Jekyll Island, Stone Mountain, and Callaway Gardens.</p><br>
<p>Martha Loftin Wilson (1834–1919), missionary worker, journal editor, heroine of the American Civil War</p><br>
<p>Kenny Rogers (1938–2020), singer, songwriter, musician, actor, record producer, and entrepreneur</p><br>
<p>Ira Yale Sage (1848–1908), Colonel, railroad builder, civil engineer, entrepreneur</p><br>
<h2>Fictional portrayals</h2><br>
<p>In Margaret Mitchells 1936 novel, Gone With The Wind, Oakland Cemetery is mentioned as the final resting place of Scarlett OHara&#39;s first husband, Charles Hamilton, and as the burial place of many Confederate soldiers who died during the Civil War.</p><br>
<h2>2008 tornado</h2><br>
<p>On March 14, 2008, Oakland Cemetery sustained significant damage when a tornado tore through downtown Atlanta. The City Sexton, Sam Reed, estimated that 50 to 60 trees were toppled and many more significantly damaged. Dozens of headstones and obelisks were also destroyed. Additionally, debris from other damaged buildings was blown into the cemetery; a shredded window blind was "draped like a necklace" around one marker. It was the first tornado to hit the downtown area since weather record keeping began in the 1880s. by Tim Eberly and Paul Shea for the Atlanta Journal and Constitution, March 15, 2008. Retrieved March 15, 2008. by Rhonda Cook et al. for the Atlanta Journal and Constitution, March 16, 2008. Retrieved March 16, 2008.</p><br>
<p>A map of the storm shows that the largest intensity of the storm was centered over the cemetery.</p><br>
<p>See article: 2008 Atlanta tornado outbreak.</p><br>
<p>The Tule Lake War Relocation Center, also known as the Tule Lake Segregation Center, was an American concentration camp located in Modoc and Siskiyou counties in California and constructed in 1942 by the United States government to incarcerate Japanese Americans, forcibly removing from their homes on the West Coast. They totaled nearly 120,000 people, more than two-thirds of whom were United States citizens. Among the inmates, the notation "" was sometimes applied.</p><br>
<p>After a period of use as the Tule Lake War Relocation Center, this facility was renamed the Tule Lake Segregation Center in 1943 and used as a maximum-security segregation camp to separate and hold those prisoners considered disloyal or disruptive to the operations of other camps. Inmates from other camps were sent here to segregate them from the general population. Draft resisters and others who protested the injustices of the camps, including by their answers on the loyalty questionnaire, were sent here. At its peak, Tule Lake Segregation Center (with 18,700 inmates) was the largest of the ten camps and the most controversial. 29,840 people were held there over the four years it was open.</p><br>
<p>After the war, it became a holding area for Japanese Americans slated for deportation or expatriation to Japan, including some who had renounced US citizenship under duress. Many joined a class action suit because of civil rights abuses; many gained the chance to stay in the United States through court hearings, but did not regain their citizenship due to opposition by the Department of Justice. The camp was not closed until March 20, 1946, months after the end of the war. Twenty years later, members of the class action suit gained restoration of US citizenship through court rulings.</p><br>
<p>California later designated the Tule Lake camp site as a California Historical Landmark and in 2006, it was named a National Historic Landmark. In addition to remains of the concentration camp, the national monument unit includes Camp Tulelake, also used during the war; as well as the rock formation known as the Peninsula/Castle Rock. The John D. Dingell, Jr. Conservation, Management, and Recreation Act, signed March 12, 2019, split up the three units of the monument, creating a new Tule Lake National Monument.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Executive Order 9066, issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in early 1942 as a response to the attack on Pearl Harbor, authorized establishing an Exclusion Zone on the West Coast, from which local military authorities could remove certain populations under wartime exigency. Military commanders ordered the forced removal and incarceration of the nearly 120,000 Japanese Americans living on the West Coast of the United States, two-thirds of whom were United States citizens. A late 20th-century study revealed that internal government studies of the time recommended against such mass exclusion and incarceration, and the study concluded this decision was based on racism, wartime hysteria and failed political leadership.</p><br>
<p>The War Relocation Authority (WRA) built ten concentration camps, referred to euphemistically as "relocation centers", in remote rural areas in the interior of the country. Tule Lake Relocation Center opened on May 27, 1942, and initially held approximately 11,800 Japanese Americans, who were primarily from Sacramento, King and Hood River counties in California, Washington and Oregon, respectively.</p><br>
<p>The Tulean Dispatch is a newsletter that was established in June 1942 and ended in October 1943, when Tule Lake became a segregation center. It was the shortest-running newspaper of the ten concentration camps.</p><br>
<p>In late 1943, the WRA issued a questionnaire intended to assess the loyalty of imprisoned Japanese Americans. The "loyalty questionnaire", as it came to be known, was originally a form circulated among draft-age men whom the military hoped to conscript into service—after assessing their loyalty and "Americanness". It soon was made mandatory for all adults in the ten camps. Two questions stirred up confusion and unrest among camp inmates. Question 27 asked, "Are you willing to serve in the armed forces of the United States on combat duty, wherever ordered?" The final question 28 asked, "Will you swear unqualified allegiance to the United States and faithfully defend the United States from any or all attack by foreign or domestic forces, and forswear any form of allegiance or obedience to the Japanese emperor, or any other foreign government, power or organization?"</p><br>
<p>The first question met resistance from young men who, while not opposed to military service outright, felt insulted that the government, having stripped them of their rights as citizens, would ask them to risk their lives in combat. Many responded with qualified statements such as, "I&#39;ll serve in the Army when my family is freed", or refused to answer the questions altogether.</p><br>
<p>Many interns had problems with the second question. Many were insulted that the question implied they ever had allegiance to a country they had either left behind decades before or, for most US citizens, never visited. Others, especially the non-citizen Issei, feared they would be deported to Japan no matter how they answered, and worried that an affirmative answer would cause them to be seen as enemy aliens by the Japanese. Issei, and many Nisei and Kibei who held dual citizenship, worried they would lose their Japanese citizenship, leaving them stateless if they were expatriated from the United States, which they feared was inevitable, given what had already occurred. In addition to these concerns, some inmates answered "no" to both questions in protest of their imprisonment and loss of civil rights. Often Issei and Kibei, who spoke little or no English, simply did not understand the poorly phrased questions or their implications, and did not answer.</p><br>
<h3>Tule Lake Segregation Center</h3><br>
<p>In 1943 the center was renamed the Tule Lake Segregation Center. The War Relocation Authority proposed to use it to separate inmates suspected of being disloyal or those who protested conditions and were disruptive in their camps. It was fortified as a maximum security facility and it quickly became the most repressive of the government&#39;s 10 concentration camps. Interns who had responded with unqualified "yes" answers to the loyalty questionnaire were given the choice to transfer from Tule Lake to another WRA camp. Approximately 6,500 "loyal" Tule Lake inmates were transferred to six camps in Colorado, Utah, Idaho, and Arkansas.</p><br>
<p>The more than 12,000 imprisoned Japanese Americans classified as "disloyal" because of their responses to the poorly worded loyalty questions were gradually transferred to Tule Lake during the remainder of 1943. Unsanitary, squalid living conditions, inadequate medical care, poor food, and unsafe or underpaid working conditions prompted prisoner protests at Tule Lake and several other camps. On November 14, after a series of meetings and demonstrations by prisoners over the poor living conditions at the overpopulated camp, the army imposed martial law in Tule Lake. The Army had additional barracks constructed early in 1944 to accommodate a second influx of segregated inmates, pushing the already swollen population to 18,700. The camp quickly became violent and unsafe. Martial law in Tule Lake ended on January 15, 1944, but many prisoners were bitter after months of living with a curfew, unannounced barrack searches, and restrictions that put a stop to recreational activities and most employment in the camp.</p><br>
<p>In the spring of 1944, Ernest Besig of the Northern California branch of the ACLU became aware of a hastily constructed stockade at Tule Lake, in which internees were routinely being brutalized and held for months without due process. Besig was forbidden by the national ACLU to intervene on behalf of the stockade prisoners or even to visit the Tule Lake camp without prior written approval from the ACLU&#39;s Roger Baldwin.</p><br>
<p>On July 1, the Renunciation Act of 1944, drafted by Attorney General Francis Biddle, was passed into law; USA citizens could, during time of war, renounce their citizenship without first leaving the country—and once they did, the government could treat them as enemy aliens, and detain or deport them with impunity. Angry at the abuses of their USA citizenship and convinced there was nothing left for them in the country of their birth, or coerced either by WRA authorities and pro-Japan groups in camp, a total of 5,589 Nisei and Kibei internees Ninety-eight percent of those who renounced their citizenship were inmates at Tule Lake, where conditions had been so harsh.</p><br>
<p>In 1945 after the war&#39;s end, the other nine WRA camps were closed as Japanese Americans gradually returned to their hometowns or settled elsewhere. Tule Lake was operated to hold those who had renounced their citizenship and Issei who had requested repatriation to Japan. Most no longer wished to leave the United States (and many had never truly wanted to leave in the first place). Those who wanted to stay in the United States and regain their citizenship (if they had it), were confined in Tule Lake until hearings at which their cases would be heard and fates determined. After the last cases were decided, the camp closed in March 1946. Although these Japanese Americans were released from camp and allowed to stay in the USA, Nisei and Kibei who had renounced their citizenship were not able to have it restored. Wayne M. Collins filed a class action suit on their behalf and the presiding judge voided the renunciations, finding they had been given under duress, but the ruling was overturned by the Department of Justice.</p><br>
<p>After a 23-year legal battle, Collins finally succeeded in gaining restoration in the late 1960s of the citizenship of those covered by the class action suit. Collins also helped 3,000 of the 4,327 Japanese Americans originally slated for deportation remain in the United States as their choice.</p><br>
<h2>Victory for Tule Lake draft resisters</h2><br>
<p>Some of the Japanese-American draft resisters wanted to use their cases to challenge their incarceration and loss of rights as US citizens. United States v. Masaaki Kuwabara was the only World War II-era Japanese-American draft resistance case to be dismissed out of court based on a due process violation of the USA Constitution. It was a forerunner of the Korematsu and Endo cases argued before the US Supreme Court, later in December 1944.</p><br>
<p>Judge Louis E. Goodman went out of his way to help fellow native Californian and lead defendant Masaaki Kuwabara by hand-picking his defense attorney, Blaine McGowan, who entered a Motion to Quash Proceedings based on the governments abrogation of his clients due process rights, guaranteed to every American citizen by the USA Constitution. Without explicitly describing Kuwabara as a victim of federal anti-Japanese racism, Judge Goodman viewed the man&#39;s experience in this light. He ruled against the United States, which incarcerated the defendant in a USA concentration camp; categorized him as a Class 4-C Enemy Alien; and then drafted him into military service. Kuwabara refused to obey the draft until his rights as an American citizen were restored to him.</p><br>
<h2>Events since the late 20th century</h2><br>
<p>Japanese-American activists revisited the civil rights issues of the forced relocation and incarceration of their people from the West Coast. In Hawaii, where 150,000 Japanese Americans comprised one-third of the population, only a small number were interned during the war. Japanese-American groups began to organize to educate the public, build support for their case, and lobby the government for redress. Finally the Japanese American Citizens League joined this movement, although it had initially opposed it.</p><br>
<h3>Pilgrimages</h3><br>
<p>Starting in 1974, Tule Lake was the site of several pilgrimages by activists calling for an official apology from the USA government for the injustices to Japanese Americans, both citizens and non-citizens. The pilgrimages (every even year, around the 4th of July), serving educational purposes, continue to this day. This Redress Movement gradually gained widespread support and Congress passed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, which was signed into law by President Ronald Reagan. It included an official governmental apology for the injustices and payment of compensation to camp survivors. A similar law was passed in 1992 to provide for compensation to additional Japanese Americans.</p><br>
<p>Groups making the annual pilgrimage have organized them around specific themes, and used them as a basis for education, as in the following:</p><br>
<p>2000 &ndash; Honoring our Living Treasures, Forging New Links (7/1-4)</p><br>
<p>2002 &ndash; As We Revisit the Meaning of Patriotism and Loyalty (7/4-7)</p><br>
<p>2004 &ndash; Citizens Betrayed (7/2-5)</p><br>
<p>2006 &ndash; Dignity and Survival in a Divided Community</p><br>
<p>2009 &ndash; Shared Remembrances (7/2-5)</p><br>
<p>2010 &ndash; Untold Stories of Tule Lake (7/2-5)</p><br>
<p>2012 &ndash; Understanding No-No and Renunciation (6/30-7/3)</p><br>
<h3>Federal grant program</h3><br>
<p>On December 21, 2006, USA President George W. Bush signed H.R. 1492 into law, creating the Japanese American Confinement Sites grant program. This authorized the appropriation of $38,000,000 in federal grant money to preserve and interpret the system of Japanese-American incarceration sites, including the temporary WCCA sites, the ten WRA concentration camps and the Department of Justice internment camps.</p><br>
<h2>Monument management</h2><br>
<p>The Monument is jointly managed by the National Park Service (NPS) and the USA Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) with a total area of 1,391 acre.</p><br>
<p>The national monument consists of three separate units: the Tule Lake Segregation Center near Newell, nearby Camp Tulelake, and a rock formation known as the Peninsula/Castle Rock near Newell. The Tule Lake Segregation Center is solely managed by the NPS. Camp Tulelake is jointly managed by the NPS and USFWS; the USFWS manages/owns the land, and the NPS maintains the buildings and provides interpretive programs. The Peninsula/Castle Rock is solely managed by the USFWS. Locally, USFWS responsibilities are handled by the administration of Lava Beds National Monument and the Tule Lake National Wildlife Refuge.</p><br>
<h2>Notable inmates</h2><br>
<p>Violet Kazue de Cristoforo (1917&ndash;2007), poet. Also interned at Jerome.</p><br>
<p>Mitsuye Endo (1920&ndash;2006), plaintiff of the Ex parte Endo Supreme Court case that led to Japanese Americans being allowed to return to the West Coast and to the closing of the war relocation camps. Also interned at Topaz.</p><br>
<p>Mary Matsuda Gruenewald (1925&ndash;2021), memoirist. Also interned at Heart Mountain.</p><br>
<p>Taneyuki “Dan” Harada (1923–2020), a painter and computer programmer. Also interned at Topaz.</p><br>
<p>Hiroshi Honda (1910&ndash;1970), an American painter.</p><br>
<p>Yamato Ichihashi (1878&ndash;1963), one of the first academics of Asian ancestry in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Emerick Ishikawa (1920&ndash;2006), a weightlifting champion.</p><br>
<p>Harvey Itano (1920&ndash;2010), became a biochemist best known for his work on the molecular basis of sickle cell anemia and other diseases.</p><br>
<p>Shizue Iwatsuki (1897&ndash;1984), a Japanese American poet. Also interned at Minidoka.</p><br>
<p>Hiroshi Kashiwagi (1922–2019), became a poet, playwright and actor.</p><br>
<p>Taky Kimura (1924–2021), martial arts practitioner and instructor. Also interned at Minidoka.</p><br>
<p>Daisuke Kitagawa (1910–1970), a reverend and episcopal priest</p><br>
<p>Mary Koga (née Mary Hisako Ishii, 1920&ndash;2001), a photographer and social worker.</p><br>
<p>Tommy Kono (1930–2016), an Olympic gold medalist weightlifter and world record holder.</p><br>
<p>Joseph Kurihara (1895–1965), a renunciant. Also interned at Manzanar.</p><br>
<p>Masaaki Kuwabara (1913–1993), lead defendant in United States v. Masaaki Kuwabara, the only Japanese-American draft resistance case to be dismissed on the basis of a due process violation of the USA Constitution.</p><br>
<p>William M. Marutani (1923–2004), lawyer, judge, and member of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians</p><br>
<p>Bob Matsui (1941&ndash;2005), was elected to 13-terms as member of the USA House of Representatives.</p><br>
<p>Toshiko Mayeda (née Kuki) (1923–2004), a Japanese American chemist</p><br>
<p>Tsutomu "Jimmy" Mirikitani (1920–2012), Sacramento, California), artist and subject of The Cats of Mirikitani, an award-winning documentary film.</p><br>
<p>Fujimatsu Moriguchi (1898&ndash;1962), an American businessman</p><br>
<p>Sadako Moriguchi (née Tsutakawa) (1907&ndash;2002), an American businesswoman</p><br>
<p>Tomio Moriguchi (born 1936), an American businessman and civil rights activist</p><br>
<p>Tomoko Moriguchi-Matsuno (née Moriguchi), (born 1945), an American businesswoman</p><br>
<p>Pat Morita (1932&ndash;2005), an actor best known for his role in the Karate Kid films; interned as a child with his family. Also interned at Gila River.</p><br>
<p>Jimmy Murakami (1933&ndash;2014), an animator and director.</p><br>
<p>George Nakano (born 1935), a former California State Assemblyman. Also interned at Jerome.</p><br>
<p>Alan Nakanishi (born 1940), a California politician</p><br>
<p>James K. Okubo (1920&ndash;1967), a United States Army soldier and a recipient of the Medal of Honor. Also interned at Heart Mountain.</p><br>
<p>James Otsuka (1921&ndash;1984), a conscientious objector during World War II and a war tax resister.</p><br>
<p>Otokichi Ozaki (1904&ndash;1983), a poet. Also interned at Jerome.</p><br>
<p>James Sakoda (1916&ndash;2005), a psychologist and pioneer in computational modeling. Also interned at Minidoka.</p><br>
<p>Minako Sasaki (1943–2023), an actress. Also interned at Jerome.</p><br>
<p>Toshiyuki Seino (born 1938), an American competitive judo athlete.</p><br>
<p>Joan Shigekawa (born 1936), an American film and television producer, cultural grantmaker, and arts administrator.</p><br>
<p>Yuki Shimoda (1921&ndash;1981), an actor.</p><br>
<p>Sab Shimono (born 1937), an actor. Also interned at Granada.</p><br>
<p>Hana Shimozumi (1893&ndash;1978), an American singer.</p><br>
<p>Noboru Shirai, author of "Tule Lake: An Issei Memoir". Born in Hiroshima, Japan, he emigrated to the USA in 1934, married Akiko May Taketa (a UC Berkeley graduate born and raised in Sacramento) and was a graduate student at Stanford University in 1942. After his release from Tule Lake, Shirai became a successful California businessman.</p><br>
<p>Robert Mitsuhiro Takasugi (1930&ndash;2009), first Japanese-American appointed to the federal bench.</p><br>
<p>George Takei (born 1937), an American actor best known for his role in Star Trek. Also interned at Rohwer.</p><br>
<p>George T. Tamura (1927&ndash;2010), an artist.</p><br>
<p>Kazue Togasaki (1897–1992), one of the first two women of Japanese ancestry to earn a medical degree in the United States. Also interned at Topaz and Manzanar.</p><br>
<p>Teiko Tomita (1896–1990), a tanka poet. Also interned at Heart Mountain.</p><br>
<p>Taitetsu Unno (1930&ndash;2014), a Buddhist scholar, lecturer, and author. Also interned at Rohwer.</p><br>
<p>Harry Urata (1917–2009), a music teacher</p><br>
<p>Jimi Yamaichi member of the 27 draft resisters of conscience, a Tule Lake survivor who shares his memories at the biennial pilgrimages, and promotes preservation of the site.</p><br>
<p>Koho Yamamoto (born 1922), an American artist. Also interned at Topaz.</p><br>
<p>Takuji Yamashita (1874&ndash;1959), an early 20th-century civil rights pioneer. Also interned at Manzanar and Minidoka.</p><br>
<p>Kenneth Yasuda (1914&ndash;2002), scholar and translator. Also interned at Jerome.</p><br>
<p>David Ikeda (1920&ndash;2015), a painter and store owner.</p><br>
<h2>Terminology</h2><br>
<p>Since the end of World War II, there has been debate over the terminology used to refer to Tule Lake, and the other camps in which Japanese Americans were imprisoned by the United States Government during the war. Tule Lake has been referred to as a "relocation camp", "relocation center", "internment camp", "concentration camp", and "segregation center", and the controversy over which term is the most accurate and appropriate continues into the early 21st century. Activists and scholars believe the government terms: relocation and internment, are euphemisms for forced deportation and concentration camps.</p><br>
<p>In 1998, use of the term "concentration camps" gained greater credibility prior to the opening of an exhibit at Ellis Island about the World War II incarceration of Japanese Americans. Initially, the American Jewish Committee (AJC) and the National Park Service, which manages Ellis Island, objected to the use of the term in the exhibit. But, during a subsequent meeting held at the offices of the AJC in New York City, leaders representing Japanese Americans and Jewish Americans reached an understanding about the use of the term. After the meeting, the Japanese American National Museum and the AJC issued a joint statement (which was included in the exhibit) that read in part:</p><br>
<p>The New York Times published an unsigned editorial supporting the use of the term "concentration camp" in the exhibit. An article quoted Jonathan Mark, a columnist for The Jewish Week, who wrote, "Can no one else speak of slavery, gas, trains, camps? Its Jewish malpractice to monopolize pain and minimize victims." AJC Executive Director David A. Harris stated during the controversy, "We have not claimed Jewish exclusivity for the term concentration camps.&#39;"</p><br>
<p>On July 7, 2012, at their annual convention, the National Council of the Japanese American Citizens League unanimously ratified the Power of Words Handbook, calling for the use of:</p><br>
<p>truthful and accurate terms, and retiring the misleading euphemisms created by the government to cover up the denial of Constitutional and human rights, the force, oppressive conditions, and racism against 120,000 innocent people of Japanese ancestry locked up in America&#39;s World War II concentration camps.</p><br>
<p>Overbrook High School is a public, four-year high school in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.</p><br>
<h2>School</h2><br>
<p>Overbrook High School is designated by the School District of Philadelphia as Location #402, in the West Region. The building was built in 1926 and designed by Irwin T. Catharine. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1986.</p><br>
<p>Enrollment for 2020-2021 was 411 students in grades 9 through 12. African Americans make up 94% of the student population. As of 2015, the school principal of Overbrook is Dr. Kahlila Johnson; Dr. Johnson graduated from Overbrook in 1989.</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>Overbrook is perhaps best known for its famous alumni, who include Wilt Chamberlain and Will Smith. At least 11 Overbrook alumni have played in the NBA, and the school is ranked sixth in that respect.</p><br>
<p>The Cathedral of the Madeleine is a Roman Catholic church in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. It was completed in 1909 and is the cathedral, or mother church, of the Diocese of Salt Lake City. It is the only cathedral in the USA under the patronage of St. Mary Magdalene.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The cathedral was built of sandstone in the shape of a cross under the direction of Lawrence Scanlan, the first bishop of Salt Lake City, who dedicated it to St. Mary Magdalene. It was designed by architects Carl M. Neuhausen and Bernard O. Mecklenburg. The exterior is predominantly a Neo-Romanesque design, while the inside displays more Neo-Gothic details. Construction began in 1900 and was completed in 1909. It was dedicated by James Cardinal Gibbons, Archbishop of Baltimore.</p><br>
<p>It is theorized that Bishop Scanlan chose Mary Magdalene as the patron saint of the Diocese of Salt Lake because her feast day is on July 22, two days before Pioneer Day, a celebration commemorating the arrival of the Mormon pioneers in Salt Lake Valley, so that Catholics would have something to celebrate alongside the region&#39;s dominant faith.</p><br>
<p>The interior of the cathedral was created under the direction of Joseph S. Glass, the second bishop of Salt Lake. Bishop Glass enlisted John Theodore Comes, one of the preeminent architects in the country, to decorate the interior of the cathedral. His plans for the interior were largely based upon the Spanish Gothic style. The colorful murals by Felix Liefuchter and polychrome were added at this time, as were the ornate shrines by Johannes Kirchmayer. In 1916, Bishop Glass also changed the name of the cathedral to the French spelling after visiting her purported tomb.</p><br>
<p>In the 1970s, the exterior of the building was restored, and between 1991 and 1993, the interior of the cathedral was renovated and restored under Bishop William K. Weigand. This included not only the removal of dust and dirt and restoration of the interior but also changes to the liturgical elements of the cathedral to bring them into conformity with certain widespread changes in liturgical practice that developed after the Second Vatican Council.</p><br>
<p>This included constructing a new altar, moving the cathedra, creating a separate chapel for the Blessed Sacrament, and adding an ample baptismal font. The major restoration of the interior of the cathedral was accomplished through the vision of Monsignor M. Francis Mannion. The Blessed Sacrament Chapel also contains the tomb of Bishop Scanlan.</p><br>
<p>A case containing a small relic of Saint Mary Magdalene formerly rested atop the tomb. The cathedral in Salt Lake City was one of two cathedrals in the world holding first-class relics of the saint and are named in her honor, the other being the Basilica of Saint-Maximin-la-Sainte-Baume in France. On July 10, 2024, the relic was stolen from the cathedral.</p><br>
<p>The cathedral is home to the only co-educational Catholic Choir School in the United States. The Madeleine Choir School, established in 1996, now serves over 400 students in Pre-Kindergarten through Grade Eight. The Cathedral Choir has recorded several CDs and routinely tours both nationally and internationally. In addition to singing daily services at the Cathedral of the Madeleine, choristers have sung at St. Peter&#39;s Basilica (Vatican City), Notre Dame de Paris (France), and in churches across the United States of America, Spain, Italy, France, Belgium, and Germany, among other places.</p><br>
<p>Composer Amédée Tremblay notably served as the church&#39;s organist from 1920 to 1925.</p><br>
<p>The Holy Trinity Cathedral, also known as Holy Trinity Greek Orthodox Church, is a Greek Orthodox cathedral in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. Built in 1923, the church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Greek Orthodox community of Salt Lake City organized in 1905 to form its first church, becoming the 14th Greek Orthodox parish community in the United States and the oldest between the Mississippi River and the Pacific coast. After an initial meeting in January, the community acquired a site for a church at 439 West 400 South and obtained a loan for construction. The first priest arrived from Greece in April. The first church building was dedicated on October 29, 1905, and named Holy Trinity Greek Orthodox Church.</p><br>
<p>The church was a central element of Greek Town in the non-LDS immigrant district of Salt Lake City and served Serbian and Russian immigrants in addition to Greeks.</p><br>
<p>The church&#39;s Byzantine architecture was unusual for the region. Design was by a local architecture firm, Pope and Burton, in collaboration with a Greek architect from Chicago, N. A. Dokas.</p><br>
<p>Holy Trinity was elevated to the status of a cathedral in 1968 during a visit by Archbishop Iakovos, primate of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America.</p><br>
<p>Holy Trinity Cathedral underwent a major renovation between 1997 and 2005, at a cost of $4.2 million.</p><br>
<h2>Hellenic Cultural Museum</h2><br>
<p>The lower level of the building houses the Hellenic Cultural Museum, opened in 1992. The museum&#39;s exhibits focus on the early history of Greek immigration and immigrant life in Utah and the Salt Lake Valley.</p><br>
<p>Sailors&#39; Snug Harbor, also known as Sailors Snug Harbor and informally as Snug Harbor, is a collection of architecturally significant 19th-century buildings on Staten Island, New York City. The buildings are set in an 83 acre park along the Kill Van Kull in New Brighton, on the North Shore of Staten Island. Some of the buildings and the grounds are used by arts organizations under the umbrella of the Snug Harbor Cultural Center and Botanical Garden.</p><br>
<p>Sailors Snug Harbor was founded as a retirement home for sailors after Captain Robert Richard Randall bequeathed funds for that purpose upon his 1801 death. Snug Harbor opened in 1833 as a sailors retirement home located within what is now Building C, and additional structures were built on the grounds in later years. The buildings became a cultural center after the sailors&#39; home moved away in 1976. The grounds and buildings are operated by Snug Harbor Cultural Center and Botanical Garden, a nonprofit, Smithsonian-affiliated organization.</p><br>
<p>Sailors Snug Harbor includes 26 Greek Revival, Beaux Arts, Italianate and Victorian style buildings. Among those are "Temple Row", five interlocking Greek Revival buildings labeled A through E. The buildings are set in extensive, landscaped grounds, surrounded by the 19th-century cast-iron fence. The grounds also include a chapel and a sailors cemetery. The cultural center includes the Staten Island Botanical Garden, the Staten Island Children&#39;s Museum, the Staten Island Museum, the Newhouse Center for Contemporary Art, and the Noble Maritime Collection, as well as the Art Lab and the Music Hall.</p><br>
<p>The site is considered Staten Islands "crown jewel" and "an incomparable remnant of New Yorks 19th-century seafaring past." It is a National Historic Landmark District. Several buildings in the complex are New York City designated landmarks.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Creation</h3><br>
<p>Snug Harbor was founded through a bequest after the 1801 death of Revolutionary War soldier and ship master Captain Robert Richard Randall, namesake of the nearby neighborhood of Randall Manor. In his will, Randall left his country estate in Manhattan, bounded by Fifth Avenue, Broadway, 10th Street, and the southern side of 8th Street in present-day Greenwich Village, to build an institution to care for "aged, decrepit and worn-out" seamen.</p><br>
<p>The first meeting of the corporation of Sailors Snug Harbor took place in 1806. In its first election, then-Mayor DeWitt Clinton was elected president. Several challenges to Randalls will took place; one by a Stephen Brown who alleged that Randall failed as executor of the estate of his grandfather in New Jersey from which the Randall estate was derived, and one from Anglican Bishop John Inglis of Nova Scotia who alleged he was a proper collateral heir through his common ancestor John Crooke. The corporation was ironically legally represented by Thomas Addis Emmet, a former member of the Society of United Irishmen, an organization inspired by the success of the American Revolution to fight the British in Ireland. Future President Martin Van Buren also served on the defense team, and Daniel Webster provided counsel to the plaintiffs.</p><br>
<p>By the time the will challenge was settled, the once-rural land around the Manhattan estate had become well-developed. Snug Harbors trustees (appointed by Randalls will, they included the mayor of New York City, the president and vice president of the Marine Society, senior ministers of the Episcopal and Presbyterian Churches, the head of the Chamber of Commerce, and the chancellor of the State) decided to maximize the profits on the Manhattan property. They changed the proposed site of the institution to another piece of land bequeathed by Randall: a 130-acre plot on Staten Island overlooking the Kill Van Kull. The land was purchased in May 1831.</p><br>
<h3>Sailors&#39; home</h3><br>
<p>The institution began with a single building, now the centerpiece in the row of five Greek Revival temple-like buildings on the New Brighton waterfront. The first building, now building C, was the first known work to be designed by Minard Lafever and completed in August 1833. When Sailors Snug Harbor opened with the completion of building C, it became the countrys first home for retired merchant seamen. The residents were referred to as "inmates" in the parlance of the day.</p><br>
<p>From 1867 to 1884, Captain Thomas Melville, a retired sea captain and brother of Moby-Dick author Herman Melville, was governor of Snug Harbor. In 1890, Captain Gustavus Trask, the governor of Snug Harbor, built a Renaissance Revival church, the Randall Memorial Chapel and, next to it, a music hall, both designed by Robert W. Gibson. At its peak in the late 19th century, about 1,000 retired sailors lived at Snug Harbor, then one of the wealthiest charities in New York. Its Washington Square area properties yielded a surplus exceeding the retirement home&#39;s costs by $100,000 a year.</p><br>
<p>By the mid-20th century, however, Snug Harbor was in financial difficulty. Once-grand structures fell into disrepair, and some were demolished; the ornate white-marble Randall Memorial Church was torn down in 1952. With the arrival of the Social Security system in the 1930s, demand for accommodation for old sailors declined; by the mid-1950s, fewer than 200 residents remained.</p><br>
<h3>Landmark designations and sale</h3><br>
<p>In the 1960s, the institution&#39;s trustees proposed to redevelop the site with high-rise buildings; the then-new New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission stepped forward to save the remaining buildings, designating them landmark structures. A series of legal battles ensued, but the validity of landmark designation was ultimately upheld in 1968. The buildings were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972, and the grounds was declared a National Historic Landmark district in 1976.</p><br>
<p>The trustees sold the Staten Island site to the New York City government in two separate transactions in 1972 and 1974, totaling $9.7 million. However, the city incurred a budget deficit as a result of the 1975 New York City fiscal crisis, leaving the government unable to perform even minor maintenance. The trustees had also been losing about $300,000 a year from the Staten Island site, and they found that it was unprofitable to keep operating the Staten Island facility. In June 1976, the trustees moved the institution to Sea Level, North Carolina. Two sailors on the Staten Island property held out until September 1976.</p><br>
<p>The Trustees of the Sailors Snug Harbor in the City of New York continues to use funds from the endowment to help mariners all over the country. The Sailors Snug Harbor Archives are preserved at the Stephen B. Luce Library at the State University of New York&#39;s Maritime College in the Bronx.</p><br>
<h3>Cultural center</h3><br>
<p>The Snug Harbor Cultural Center and the Staten Island Botanical Garden were established in 1975. The former would operate the buildings, while the latter would maintain the gardens on the grounds. On September 12, 1976, the Snug Harbor Cultural Center was opened to the public.</p><br>
<p>In 2008, the Cultural Center and the Staten Island Botanical Garden merged to become the Snug Harbor Cultural Center and Botanical Garden.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The five interlocking Greek Revival buildings at Snug Harbor are located on the northern end of the grounds, near Richmond Terrace, and are known as buildings A through E from west to east. The five buildings were designed by Minard Lafever and Richard Smyth, and constructed from 1831 to 1880. Building C was an administration building while the remaining structures were dormitories. The buildings are parallel to each other, but due to the differing facade designs, buildings B and D appear to be set back from buildings A, C, and E. They were regarded in one book as "the most ambitious moment of the classic revival in the United States" and the "most extraordinary" suite of Greek temple-style buildings in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Another set of buildings, labeled F through H, are respectively located south of buildings D through B, and are connected to each other and to the buildings immediately north of them. The Great Hall and Music Hall are located east of buildings H through F. South of the Music Hall is the Veterans Memorial Hall, formerly known as the chapel. A matrons house and a maintenance building are south of buildings H through F and east of the chapel. The Staten Island Childrens Museum and World Trade Center Educational Tribute are in the center of the grounds, south of the maintenance building and matrons house, while the Snug Harbor Administration building is south of the museum. On the west end of the site are five cottages labeled A through E.</p><br>
<p>Buildings A through E are individually listed as landmarks, as are the 131-year-old chapel and the interiors of building C and the chapel. The five main buildings and chapel were made landmarks in 1965; and the building C and chapel interiors in 1982.</p><br>
<h3>Buildings A through E</h3><br>
<h4>Building A</h4><br>
<p>Building A was designed by Richard Smyth and constructed in 1879. The structure was initially intended as a dormitory building. Building A has housed the Staten Island Museum since 2015.</p><br>
<h4>Building B</h4><br>
<p>Building B was designed by Minard Lafever and constructed from 1839 to 1840. The structure was initially intended as a dormitory building. Although the Staten Island Museum planned to expand there by 2022, the building is still being renovated.</p><br>
<h4>Building C</h4><br>
<p>Building C, also known as the Administration Building, is a Greek Revival building designed by Minard Lafever and constructed from 1831 to 1883; it is Lafever&#39;s oldest surviving work. The sides of building C are eight bays wide, while the rear elevation is made of brick. Single-story passageways extend east to building D, west to building B, and south to an annex.</p><br>
<p>Building C was originally an administrative building, though it also included bedrooms, kitchens, dining rooms, washrooms, and recreational rooms. The portico entrance leads to a main hall that is stories high, with a vaulted ceiling containing a dome in the center, as well as ash floors. Nine doorways lead from the main hall to other rooms on the first floor, while the three passageways to the other buildings are at the center of the eastern, western, and southern walls.</p><br>
<p>Building C&#39;s interior was renovated in 1884. The rotunda was again restored in the 1990s. Building C houses part of the Newhouse Center for Contemporary Art.</p><br>
<h4>Building D</h4><br>
<p>Building D was designed by Minard Lafever and constructed from 1831 to 1841. The structure was initially intended as a dormitory building.</p><br>
<h4>Building E</h4><br>
<p>Building E was designed by Richard Smyth and constructed in 1880. The structure was initially intended as a dormitory building. Building E is not open to the public.</p><br>
<h3>Veteran&#39;s Memorial Hall</h3><br>
<p>The Veteran&#39;s Memorial Hall, formerly the chapel, was designed by local builder James Solomon and constructed between 1855 and 1856. Stylistically, it was a "transitional" building, with stylistic elements mainly rooted in Italianate architecture as well as some elements of Greek Revival architecture. The chapel contains a gable roof. The front entrance consists of a tower with a belfry projecting from the front end of the chapel. The entrance leads to a plaster-walled vestibule with three round arches and three plaques. The brick facade has six round-arched windows on each side, separated by pilasters. At the rear is a one-story extension with an office and sacristy. The chapel has stained glass windows inside.</p><br>
<p>Inside is a rectangular space that could fit 600 people. The space also contains wooden pews and wainscoted walls. The coved ceiling has a recessed panel with two lamps. A gallery on the north end is supported by two cast-iron columns and has recessed wood paneling. An apse at the south end surrounds a raised former altar area. At the center of an apse is a doorway to the office, which has plastered walls with bookcases built into them, as well as a stone fireplace.</p><br>
<p>When built, the main entrance was through a central round arch at the front, which was topped by a pediment surrounded by Doric pilasters. A round-arched window and lintel flanked either side of the main entrance, while a full height pilaster was located at each corner. One observer in 1873 said that the chapel was a "plain but handsome brick building, without any cupola or belfry." The walls were repainted that year, with decorative elements resembling panels and pilasters. The chapels bell tower and stained glass date to 1883. The chapel was relocated 200 ft from its previous site in 1893. The Veterans Memorial Hall was damaged in 2014, and the building is not open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Grounds</h2><br>
<p>The buildings are set in extensive, landscaped grounds. There are five gates, two of which are vehicular gates, and the other three of which are used by pedestrians only. The vehicular gates are the west gate on Snug Harbor Road and the east gate on Tysen Street. The others are the north gate on Richmond Terrace, the south gate on Henderson Avenue, and the Kissel gate on Kissel Avenue at the far western end of the property. The Italianate gate house at the north gate, as well as the mid-19th-century iron fence on Richmond Terrace, are New York City designated landmarks.</p><br>
<p>Paul Goldberger wrote, "Snug Harbor has something of the feel of a campus, something of the feel of a small-town square. Indeed, these rows of classical temples, set side-by-side with tiny connecting structures recessed behind the grand facades, are initially perplexing because they fit into no pattern we recognize — they are lined up as if on a street, yet they are set in the landscape of a park. They seem at once to embrace the 19th-century tradition of picturesque design and, by virtue of their rigid linear order, to reject it."</p><br>
<p>The grounds include a 1893 zinc fountain featuring the god Neptune, now indoors with a replica in its place. The New York Times described the statue as sitting "in the middle, astride a shell held aloft by sea monsters, his trident raised. Jets of water spurt from the fountain&#39;s center and from bouquets of metal calla lilies to its sides." Also on the grounds is a bronze statue of Robert Randall by Augustus Saint-Gaudens.</p><br>
<h3>Iron fence and gatehouses</h3><br>
<p>An iron railing surrounds the property. About 1/3 mi of the fence on the northern edge of the property, built in the mid-19th century in the Greek Revival style, is designated as a city landmark. Several gates flanked by granite posts were embedded in the fence.</p><br>
<p>The grounds are accessed by numerous gatehouses that date to the period between 1851 and 1875. They are designed in the Italianate, Second Empire, and Romanesque styles.</p><br>
<p>The northern gatehouse on Richmond Terrace is directly in front of building C and set back 15 ft behind the iron fence. It is trapezoidal in plan and has a high archway in the center. Guard rooms with rectangular windows flank either side of the archway. Unused marble and sandstone from the construction of the original structures was used to create the quoins surrounding the archway and window openings. The top of the gatehouse has brick corbels supporting a cornice. A square cupola is at the center of the archway.</p><br>
<h3>Snug Harbor Cemetery</h3><br>
<p>The residents of Sailors&#39; Snug Harbor were buried on the grounds in what was called "Monkey Hill". The location of the cemetery is across the road from the current Snug Harbor complex in Allison Pond Park, which used to be part of the original Snug Harbor campus. The pond served as a water supply for the Snug Harbor facility until 1939. The cemetery portion (surrounded by a red brick wall) is still owned by the Snug Harbor Center, while the remaining land was sold in 1975 to the city and turned into a public park with hiking trails. The majority of the over 7,000 bodies (including those of military sailors) now lay in unmarked graves because their headstones were removed in the 1980s and put into storage for preservation after the cemetery became inactive.</p><br>
<h2>Snug Harbor Cultural Center and Botanical Garden</h2><br>
<p>Snug Harbor Cultural Center and Botanical Garden is a nonprofit, Smithsonian-affiliated organization that operates Sailors Snug Harbor. Its primary purpose is "to operate, manage and develop the premises known as Sailors Snug Harbor as a cultural and educational center and park." In 2005, it was among 406 New York City arts and social service institutions to receive part of a $20 million grant from the Carnegie Corporation, which was made possible through a donation by former Mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg. In 2006, the revenues and expenses of the nonprofit were both around US$3.7 million, and its year-end assets were $2.6 million. It is home to the Staten Island Childrens Theater Association (SICTA) and the Staten Island Conservatory of Music.</p><br>
<h3>Staten Island Botanical Garden</h3><br>
<p>The Staten Island Botanical Garden maintains extensive gardens. The White Garden was inspired by Vita Sackville-Wests famous garden at Sissinghurst. Connie Gretzs Secret Garden was dedicated in 2000 with funding from local resident Randy Gretz, in honor of his late wife; it contains a castle, a maze and walled secret garden. The New York Chinese Scholar&#39;s Garden, an authentic, walled, Chinese garden, was built in 1998 in the style of the famous gardens of Suzhou.</p><br>
<h3>Newhouse Center for Contemporary Art</h3><br>
<p>Established in 1977, the Newhouse Center for Contemporary Art exhibits the works of local and international artists. The center also provides artist-in-residence exhibitions and 15,000 ft&sup2; of gallery space. It was founded inside the architecturally significant Greek Revival buildings of Sailors&#39; Snug Harbor.</p><br>
<p>Although the Newhouse was founded with a focus on artists who live or have their studios on Staten Island and art that reflects the history of Staten Island or Snug Harbor, the Newhouse moved on to a broader focus on contemporary art. Unlike many New York museums, the Newhouse has the space to mount large shows and large works, and can add outdoor sculpture to the mix.</p><br>
<h3>Noble Maritime Collection</h3><br>
<p>The Noble Maritime Collection is a museum in building D, with a particular emphasis on the work of artist/lithographer/sailor John A. Noble (1913–1983). It opened in 2000 after seven years of planning.</p><br>
<p>The Washington Post called the exhibit of a houseboat that Noble converted into an artists studio "compelling... It is a home on the water and an artists lair all in one, complete with wooden surfaces, portholes, an engineer&#39;s bed, a drawing table, and printmaking and etching implements." The New York Sun called the Noble Collection "an unsung gem among New York museums."</p><br>
<h3>Staten Island Children&#39;s Museum</h3><br>
<p>The Staten Island Childrens Museum features a rotating collection of hands-on exhibits and an extensive year round live animal collection of exotic arthropods. The Childrens Museum consists of the main building which was originally built in 1913 and the old Snug Harbor barn where the livestock was originally kept to feed the residents of Sailors&#39; Snug Harbor. When the museum was developed, a modern walkway was built connecting the two structures to create one museum building.</p><br>
<h3>Staten Island Museum</h3><br>
<p>The Staten Island Museum opened a location at Snug Harbor in September 2015. After operating two locations for almost two years, the museum closed the St. George location and consolidated its operations in building A. The Museum hopes to expand to building B by 2022.</p><br>
<h3>Art Lab</h3><br>
<p>Art Lab is a school of fine and applied art, founded in 1975 and offering art instruction and exhibitions.</p><br>
<h3>Music Hall</h3><br>
<p>A 686-seat Greek Revival auditorium,</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The bus travels to and from the Staten Island Ferry and Staten Island Railway at St. George Terminal, stopping at Snug Harbors front gate. Additionally, the Sailors Snug Harbor station was served by the Staten Island Railway&#39;s now-defunct North Shore Branch. Although the station closed in 1953, a retaining wall and stairways from the station still exist.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In an 1898 article in Ainslees Magazine, "When The Sails Are Furled: Sailors Snug Harbor," the soon-to-be-famous novelist Theodore Dreiser provided an amusing non-fiction account of the obstreperous and frequently intoxicated residents of Snug Harbor.</p><br>
<p>The American maritime folk song collector William Main Doerflinger collected a number of songs from residents at Sailors&#39; Snug Harbor which were among those published in his 1951 compilation, "Shantymen and Shantyboys", reprinted in 1972 as "Songs of the Sailorman and Lumberman".</p><br>
<p>In 2004, local performing arts company Sundog Theatre commissioned an original play by Damon DiMarco and Jeffrey Harper about the sailors life at Snug Harbor. My Mariners was performed at the Harbors Veteran&#39;s Memorial Hall.</p><br>
<p>The 2009 illustrated novel Peter Pigeon of Snug Harbor, by Ed Weiss, is set almost entirely at Snug Harbor – from its days as an old sailors&#39; home to its new incarnation as an arts center.</p><br>
<p>The 2011 comedy film Damsels in Distress, written and directed by Whit Stillman, filmed on location at Snug Harbor, using it to represent a fictitious East Coast college.</p><br>
<p>Sailors Snug Harbor was featured in Ghost Hunters, where TAPS was asked to investigate the paranormal claims there. In January 2013, an episode of Ghost Adventures was filmed at and focused on Sailors Snug Harbor and the spirits haunting the area.</p><br>
<p>The Newport Casino is an athletic complex and recreation center located at 180–200 Bellevue Avenue, Newport, Rhode Island in the Bellevue Avenue/Casino Historic District. Built in 1879&ndash;1881 by New York Herald publisher James Gordon Bennett, Jr., it was designed in the Shingle style by the newly formed firm of McKim, Mead & White. The Newport Casino was the firms first major commission and helped to establish the firms national reputation. Built as a social club, it included courts for both lawn tennis and court tennis, facilities for other games, such as squash and lawn bowling, club rooms for reading, socializing, card-playing, and billiards, shops, and a convertible theater and ballroom. It became a center of Newport&#39;s social life during the Gilded Age through the 1920s.</p><br>
<p>The casino was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987. The complex, which was the site of the earliest American lawn tennis championships, now houses the International Tennis Hall of Fame. The Newport Casino also hosted the first Newport Jazz Festival in 1954.</p><br>
<h2>1879 – 1900</h2><br>
<p>James Gordon Bennett, Jr. was a summer resident of Newport and in August 1879 paid $60,000 to acquire the Sidney Brooks estate "Stone Villa" (demolished in 1957, the Bellevue Gardens shopping complex currently stands in its place). Legend claims that Bennett placed a bet with his guest and polo partner British Cavalry Officer, Captain Henry Augustus "Sugar" Candy that Candy would not ride his horse up onto the front porch of Newports most exclusive mens club – The Newport Reading Room. Candy won the bet, but the Reading Room members were not amused and revoked guest privileges for the men causing Bennett to build his own social club.</p><br>
<p>The Newport Mercury does not confirm the polo-pony exploits by Bennett and Captain Candy, but rather states Candy was dismissed from the Newport Reading Room "for a clear violation of the rules of that institution." Nonetheless, Bennett had already been in discussions with Charles McKim in 1879 about converting his summer home Stone Villa into a social club. However, he then decided to acquire the vacant lot across the street and commission McKim and his partners, William Mead and Stanford White to bring to life a facility that would allow for both private and public areas. The blueprints for the Newport Casino were drawn up by the end of 1879. The construction was overseen by local contractor Nathan Barker. Ground was broken for the construction on January 8, 1880. With an estimated construction crew of 200-300 laborers, the Newport Casino opened to its first patrons in July 1880, and the general public got their first view in August 1880.</p><br>
<p>Charles McKim oversaw the main design of the physical building. William Mead&#39;s role was as engineer and financial organizer. Stanford White was responsible for the design of the interior spaces, including furniture, as well as the Casino Theatre. The completed main building consisted of a three-story clubhouse; the ground floor had open-air porches and Bellevue Avenue facing storefronts, the second floor housed the billiards room, club and reading rooms, and lodgings, while the third floor contained additional lodging rooms and attic spaces. At the rear of the property is a two-story porch that connects the Court Tennis building and the Casino Theatre building. Taking many elements and cues from the Japanese Pavilion at the 1876 Centennial International Exhibition in Philadelphia, McKim, Mead & White provided for a plan that was both secluded and open.</p><br>
<p>A theatre located at the rear of the property (extant) was completed in 1881. Originally, its 500 seats were removable for dancing and the building was the scene of many social occasions for fashionable Summer visitors in the Gilded Age. One such attendee and early performer who lectured at the theatre in 1882 was Oscar Wilde.</p><br>
<p>The United States Lawn Tennis Association held their first championships at the Casino in 1881, an event that would continue through 1914. By this time, tennis was firmly entrenched as the key attraction at the Casino.</p><br>
<h2>1900 – 1954</h2><br>
<p>The first half of the 20th century was unkind to the Newport Casino. The Gilded age drew to a close with the onset of the Depression, and the Newport fell by the wayside as a summer resort for the wealthy and powerful. The Casino struggled financially as a social club right from the start, and by the 1950s the Casino was in sad shape. Like many of the mansions, there was the very real possibility that it would be demolished to make way for more modern retail space.</p><br>
<p>Candy and Jimmy Van Alen took over operating the club, and by 1954 had established the International Tennis Hall of Fame in the Newport Casino. The combination of prominent headliners at the tennis matches and the museum allowed the building to be saved.</p><br>
<p>It stands today as one of the finest examples of Victorian Shingle Style architecture in the world. The buildings are generally well preserved, and the Casino Theatre which was in a state of disrepair was restored in 2010 and is currently leased to Salve Regina University. The theater occasionally still shows films, mostly during the Newport International Film Festival or charity events.</p><br>
<h2>1955 &ndash; Present</h2><br>
<p>The complex of buildings has undergone tremendous restoration during the modern era.</p><br>
<p>At the rear of the property is a two-story porch that connects the Court Tennis Building and the Casino Theatre, both original to the Newport Casino complex built in 1880. The Court Tennis building was restored in 1980 and the National Tennis Club was formed to use and preserve this game, from which the modern game of tennis evolved. The Casino Theatre, which had long been used primarily for storage, was restored in partnership with nearby Salve Regina University in 2010 to house their theater program during the school year and to be used for a variety of films, lectures, and other programming during the summer months. One important change in the Theater renovation is that the fixed one-level seating which had been installed in the early 1920s (to replace the removable seating of the original design) was replaced with graded permanent seating. During the renovation the fixed seating was removed and restored by the same Michigan company that originally made the seats in the 1920s, and even retained the top-hat storage underneath each chair. In 2010 the International Tennis Hall of Fame and Salve Regina University&#39;s restoration project of the Casino Theatre was recognized by Preserve Rhode Island and the Rhode Island Historical Preservation & Heritage Commission with the Rhody Award for Historic Preservation.</p><br>
<p>The Hall of Fame Museum&#39;s exhibition galleries which exist on the second floor of the main Newport Casino building have been created in a series of renovations, first in the 1970s, then in the 1990s, and most recently in 2014–2015. In the 1990s, the third floor of the main building was renovated into a suitable repository for the storage and study of pieces in the Tennis Hall of Fame artifact, library, and archival collections. The most recent renovation exposed many original McKim, Mead & White fireplaces that had long been hidden behind sheet-rock walls.</p><br>
<p>Recently several large construction projects have helped reshape the campus. In 2014, a steel indoor tennis building and gas station were demolished and a 19th-century cottage was relocated to create space for a large new structure designed in the Shingle Style by Robert A.M. Stern to house three new indoor courts, a gymnasium, an enlarged pro shop and Hall of Fame office. Three new outdoor courts are enclosed by an inflatable bubble roof during the winter months to double the number of year-round courts available on the campus. The stadium court and stands also underwent renovation on 2016 to replace old bleacher seating located on the South end of the courts with new individual seating modeled on the seating at Wimbledon. This renovation also modified the West Stands, which had originally been built as part of the coaching and riding ring of the original complex, which was converted into the showcase Stadium Court in the 1970s.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>The complex includes:</p><br>
<p>The Casino (shops, a restaurant, offices, and the International Tennis Hall of Fame Museum)</p><br>
<p>Horseshoe Piazza and Court</p><br>
<p>Bill Talbert Stadium</p><br>
<p>Court Tennis Building</p><br>
<p>Casino Theatre – restored and managed by Salve Regina University Department of Performing Arts</p><br>
<p>Indoor tennis courts</p><br>
<p>Various grass tennis courts</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>The Newport Casino was never a public gambling establishment. Originally, "casino" meant a small villa built for pleasure. During the 19th century, the term casino came to include other buildings where social activities took place.</p><br>
<p>In its heyday during the Gilded Age, the Newport Casino offered a wide array of social diversions to the summer colony including archery, billiards, bowling, concerts, dancing, dining, horse shows, lawn bowling, reading, lawn tennis, tea parties, and theatricals. It was best known as the home of American lawn tennis; the Casino hosted the 1881–1914 National Championships, later called the USA Open. Between 1915 and 1967 it hosted the Newport Casino Invitational men&#39;s tennis tournament.</p><br>
<p>Today, there is still an active grass-court tennis club, as well as an indoor tennis club. The Newport Casino Croquet Club offers championship croquet play on Newport&#39;s grass courts.</p><br>
<p>The Court Tennis Building, housing the National Tennis Club, is part of the original complex, and was constructed in 1881. The structure lost its roof to a fire during the 1940s but was restored to functionality with a large-scale renovation in 1980, and remains one of the most active courts of its type in the United States.</p><br>
<h2>Notable Members</h2><br>
<p>Notable former members include:</p><br>
<p>John Jacob Astor IV, American businessman</p><br>
<p>Charles H. Baldwin, an officer in the United States Navy, who served during the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War</p><br>
<p>August Belmont, United States banker, financier and diplomat</p><br>
<p>James Gordon Bennett Jr., American publisher</p><br>
<p>Edward H. Bulkeley, American clubman</p><br>
<p>Thomas Forbes Cushing, American clubman</p><br>
<p>Elisha Dyer Jr., American Politician</p><br>
<p>John N. A. Griswold, American China trade merchant, industrialist, and diplomat</p><br>
<p>Gardiner Greene Howland, American businessman</p><br>
<p>H. H. Hunnewell, American banker</p><br>
<p>David H. King Jr., American gilded age constructor</p><br>
<p>Henry Ledyard, American politician</p><br>
<p>Pierre Lorillard IV, American tobacco manufacturer and racehrose owner</p><br>
<p>Levi P. Morton, Vice President of the United States from 1889 to 1893</p><br>
<p>Royal Phelps, American politician</p><br>
<p>Fairman Rogers, American academic</p><br>
<p>Philip Schuyler, Soldier, clubman, philanthropist and prominent member of New York society during the Gilded Age</p><br>
<p>Frederic W. Stevens, American lawyer and banker</p><br>
<p>William R. Travers, American businessman</p><br>
<p>Guardian Building is a landmark 43-story office skyscraper in the Financial District of downtown Detroit, Michigan. Built from 1928 to 1929, the building was originally called the Union Trust Building and is a bold example of Art Deco architecture, including art moderne designs. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1989, and is currently owned by Wayne County.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The main frame of the skyscraper rises 32 stories, capped by two asymmetric spires, one extending for seven additional stories. The roof height of the building is 496 ft (151 m), the top floor is 489 feet (149 m), and the spire reaches 632 ft (192.6 m). Its nickname, Cathedral of Finance, alludes both to the buildings resemblance to a cathedral—with its tower over the main entrance and octagonal apse at the opposite end—and to New York Citys Woolworth Building, which had earlier been dubbed the Cathedral of Commerce. Native American themes are common inside and outside the building. Wirt C. Rowland, of the Smith, Hinchman & Grylls firm, was the building&#39;s architect. The building rises from a granite and stone six story base with two sculptures created by Corrado Parducci flanking the Griswold Street entrance.</p><br>
<p>The architect closely supervised the building of the exterior, which includes brickwork with tile, limestone, and terra cotta. The colored brick that Rowland selected for the exterior came to be marketed by the manufacturer as “Union Trust Brick” and, after 1939, as “Guardian brick”. Rowland designed furniture for the bank&#39;s offices as well as tableware, linens, and waitress uniforms for a restaurant in the building.</p><br>
<p>The buildings three-story, vaulted lobby is lavishly decorated with Pewabic and Rookwood tile. The semi-circular exterior domes are filled with Pewabic Pottery; Mary Chase Perry Stratton worked closely with the architect in the design of the symbolic decorations. (See Savage, infra.) A Monel metal screen divides the lobby from the banking hall on the second floor, the screen features a clock in the center designed by Tiffany. The building includes works by muralist Ezra Winter in the mosaic above the main lobby desk and the mural at the end of the banking hall. The large mosaic is of a pine tree and text that states the Union Trust Companys purpose for the building, "Founded on principles of faith and understating, this building is erected for the purpose of continuing and maintaining the ideals of financial services which promoted the organization of the institution". The mural highlights Michigan&#39;s industries such as manufacturing, farming and mining. In order to dampen the sound in the banking hall, its cement-plaster ceiling features a hand-painted canvas ceiling, which was stretched over a mat of horsehair.</p><br>
<h2>Innovations</h2><br>
<p>The Guardian Building featured innovations in both design and technology. The buildings designer, Wirt Rowland, specified Monel metal in place of the commonly used brass and bronze for all exposed metalwork on the building, an innovation which was widely adopted, most notably on New Yorks Chrysler Building. Rowland dispensed with traditional forms of decoration, using instead colored materials (brick, stone, and terra cotta) set in geometric patterns on both the interior and exterior of the structure. The building&#39;s elevator system represented the first use of technology which automatically stopped the car level with the floor and opened the doors, tasks formerly handled by the operator.</p><br>
<p>William Edward Kapp, architect for the firm of Smith, Hinchman & Grylls has been credited with interior design work on the Guardian Building.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The skyscraper was built by the Union Trust Company, founded in Detroit in 1890 by Senator James McMillan, and Dexter M. Ferry, along with investments from Russell A. Alger, Col. Frank J. Hecker, and Christian H. Buhl. During World War II, the Guardian Building served as the USA Army Command Center for war time production. The Guardian served various tenants as an office building in downtown Detroit. In 1982 it became the headquarters of Michigan Consolidated Gas Company ("MichCon") subsequent to the divestiture of MichCon by ANR Company in 1981. Under the leadership of President and COO Stephen E. Ewing, MichCon restored the lobby and vaulted ceilings on the first floor in 1986. It would stay MichCon&#39;s later to be called MCN Energy Group headquarters until the merger of MCN with DTE Energy in 2001. It was sold by DTE to a local real estate developer, the Sterling Group, in 2002.</p><br>
<p>The Sterling Group invested $14 million in the building and reopened the lobby to the public, which had only been accessible to employees after MichCon purchased the building.</p><br>
<p>On July 18, 2007, Wayne County Executive Robert Ficano announced it has entered into an agreement to purchase the Guardian Building to relocate its offices from the Wayne County Building. The deal was reportedly part of a larger deal worth $33.5 million in real estate purchases in downtown Detroit. The Guardian Building has become a souvenir item along with other Detroit skyscrapers.</p><br>
<h2>Tenants</h2><br>
<p>SmithGroupJJR</p><br>
<p>Wayne County - Departments: Buildings, Commission, Corporation Counsel, Department of Information Technology, Economic Development Corporation, Management & Budget, Economic Development, Wayne County Land Bank, Benefits, County Executive, Healthchoice, Health, Veterans Services, Prosecutors & Detectives, Personal/Workforce, Indigent Defense Services, Juvenile and Youth Services</p><br>
<p>Detroit Transportation Corporation</p><br>
<p>Detroit Land Bank Authority</p><br>
<p>Guardian Cafe Featuring James Oliver Coffee</p><br>
<p>Bank of America</p><br>
<p>Huron Capital</p><br>
<p>Detroit Economic Growth Corporation</p><br>
<p>Eagle Security Services</p><br>
<p>Federal Criminal Attorneys of Michigan</p><br>
<p>Law Office of Sklar & Rataj</p><br>
<p>Jacobs & Diemer</p><br>
<p>Roncelli Construction Services</p><br>
<p>Attorney Kenneth Sebree</p><br>
<p>Wade Trim</p><br>
<p>Bajoka Law Group</p><br>
<p>Guardian Store</p><br>
<p>Green Room</p><br>
<p>Crazy Gring</p><br>
<p>Land Capital Ventures</p><br>
<p>Law Office of Maria Mannarino</p><br>
<p>Steingold Law Firm</p><br>
<p>The Detroit People Mover</p><br>
<p>City Tour Detroit</p><br>
<p>The Monzo Group</p><br>
<p>St. J Style</p><br>
<p>Law office of Nathan & Kamionski</p><br>
<p>Pitts Law Firm</p><br>
<p>Legionville  was the first formal basic training facility for the military of the United States. The camp, which was established in winter 1792 under the command of Major General Anthony Wayne, was near present-day Baden, Pennsylvania, a suburb of Pittsburgh. It was used to train the soldiers which would become the Legion of the United States.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the winter of 1792-93, existing troops along with new recruits were drilled in military skills, tactics and discipline. The following spring the newly named Legion of the United States left Legionville for the Northwest Indian War, a struggle between American Indian tribes affiliated with the Western Confederacy in the area north of the Ohio River.</p><br>
<p>The overwhelmingly successful campaign was concluded with the decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794. The training the troops received at Legionville was seen as instrumental to this victory.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>The United States military realized it needed a well-trained standing army following St. Clair&#39;s Defeat on November 4, 1791, when a force led by General Arthur St. Clair was almost entirely wiped out by the Western Confederacy near Fort Recovery, Ohio. The plans, which were supported by USA President George Washington and Henry Knox, Secretary of War, would lead to the creation of the Legion of the United States. The command would be based on the 18th-century military works of Henry Bouquet, a professional Swiss soldier who served as a colonel in the British army, and French Marshal Maurice de Saxe.</p><br>
<p>In 1792 Anthony Wayne, a renowned hero of the American Revolutionary War, was encouraged to leave retirement and return to active service as Commander-in-Chief of the Legion with the rank of Major General. The Legion, which was recruited and raised in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was formed around elements of the 1st and 2nd Regiments from the disbanded Continental Army. These units then became the First and Second Sub-Legions. The Third and Fourth Sub-Legions were raised from additional recruits. From June 1792 to November 1792, the Legion remained cantoned at Fort LaFayette in Pittsburgh.</p><br>
<h2>Establishment</h2><br>
<p>By October 1792, Major General Wayne had been seeking a suitable place to winter and train his army away from the distractions of the city. Wayne eventually found the perfect site 22 miles from Pittsburgh on the eastern bank of the Ohio River near the modern town of Baden, Pennsylvania. The site was either on or near a former Indian village called Logstown (circa 1727-1758). On November 9, an advance party arrived and began preparing the camp for the arrival of the main army. On November 28, 1792, Wayne left Pittsburgh by boat with a fanfare and good wishes from its citizens. Within four hours, he disembarked at the new cantonment that he dubbed Legion Ville.</p><br>
<p>The camp, which was laid out on an east-west axis, had steep ravines to the north, east and west. Four redoubts, numbered 1-4, ringed the cantonment. Each redoubt garrisoned 36 men with an additional 120 men stationed at guard posts around the perimeter. The defensive ditch surrounding the entire garrison area was more than a mile long. In total 260 men, guarded the camp seven days a week, twenty-four hours a day. In less than a month, Legion Ville had grown to more than 500 buildings and had a population five times larger than the city of Pittsburgh. Single story wooden barracks were built for the enlisted men of the dragoons, infantry, artillery and rifle-corps. Officers of the dragoons and artillery had two-story buildings. Major General Wayne&#39;s house and the hospital were two-story log cabins with chimneys on both sides. The total area of the cantonment was about 35 acre. Estimates of the personnel at Legion Ville vary, but 2,500 is the popular figure.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After all Waynes forces had been properly quartered, training started in earnest. The troops fired at targets every day as Wayne wanted marksmen. Bayonet drills, hand-to-hand combat, mock battles and overnight encampments outside the installation were also common. The dragoons (cavalry) under the command of Captain Robert MisCampbell built an obstacle course south of Legion Ville. The artillery lieutenants and captains built an artillery range. An auxiliary rifle range was built a half-mile west of the site. Troops were marched continually and battle formations and tactics taught to new officers. Discipline was harsh as courts martial were common; even minor infractions were dealt with severely (often lashing with a Cat o nine tails). Captain William Eaton who would lead the USA Marines ashore at Tripoli in 1804 was often a presiding judge.</p><br>
<p>During the winter, 16 private soldiers died at Legion Ville and were buried in an unmarked cemetery near Redoubt Number 2 inside the camp. The exact location was identified by local archaeologists via a cadaver dog in 2013. Among the dead were: Henry Dundalo, William Perry, James White, Randolph Hutchins, William Williamson, John Patterson, John Fry and Jarrett Rogers.</p><br>
<p>An officer duel between Lieutenant Daniel Jenifer and Ensign William Pitt Gassaway resulted in the ensign being killed. He was buried in the unmarked military cemetery. Colonel Thomas Proctor visited the camp and stayed for months helping the artillery become proficient. On February 26, 1793, Dr. Joseph Strong of Connecticut climbed the western bank of the hill and drew a picture of the site in a letter to a friend, Dr. Mason Cogswell. This letter, the only known depiction of the site, is kept within the archives at Yale University.</p><br>
<p>On March 25, 1793 the Grand Masonic Lodge of the State of Pennsylvania granted the first Masonic Lodge in Beaver County. This was to be at Legion Ville and was known under charter as Lodge 58. The Master was Captain Robert MisCampbell, Senior Warden Captain Robert Tinsley and Junior Warden, William Eaton.</p><br>
<p>With Spring, Seneca leaders Guyasuta, Cornplanter and Big Tree met Wayne at Legion Ville in March 1793 to discuss peace terms. When the talks failed, George Washington gave the go-ahead for the campaign against the Indians. On April 30, 1793, the largest flotilla of military barges ever assembled on the Ohio River departed Legion Ville for Fort Washington, Cincinnati, Ohio. On August 20, 1794, the Legion of the United States defeated the Indian Confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The Treaty of Greenville was signed on August 3, 1795 opening the Northwest Territory to settlement.</p><br>
<p>The discipline and intense training at Legion Ville was a key factor in the United States&#39; winning of the Northwest Indian War.</p><br>
<h2>Site legacy</h2><br>
<p>In 1824 the Harmony Society purchased the property on which Legion Ville stood. The site was later bought by the A.M. Byers Ironworks Company who in turn sold it to National Tire and Rubber Company of Akron, Ohio. In 1973, the Anthony Wayne Historical Society was formed to preserve the site. In 1994, the name was changed to the Legion Ville Historical Society.</p><br>
<p>Republican senator John Heinz from Pennsylvania wanted to make the site a national park but the Bill was pocket-vetoed due to a clerical error by President Jimmy Carter. National Tire and Rubber eventually sold the site. In 2005 it was acquired by developers. A portion of the site was proposed as the location of a car dealership in Spring 2013.</p><br>
<p>Fort Recovery was a United States Army fort ordered built by General "Mad" Anthony Wayne during what is now termed the Northwest Indian War. Constructed from late 1793 and completed in March 1794, the fort was built along the Wabash River, within two miles of what became the Ohio state border with Indiana. A detachment of Wayne&#39;s Legion of the United States held off an attack from combined Indian forces on June 30, 1794. The fort was used as a reference in drawing treaty lines for the 1795 Treaty of Greenville, and for later settlement. The fort was abandoned in 1796.</p><br>
<p>The present-day village of Fort Recovery, Ohio developed around the fort and along the river. It includes sites and monuments to commemorate the fort and battles in the area.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>General Wayne purposely built the fort at the site where Arthur St. Clair had been defeated in 1791 by an Indian confederacy under Miami Chief Michikinikwa (Little Turtle) and Shawnee Chief Weyapiersenwah (Blue Jacket). That battle, called St. Clairs Defeat, ended St Clairs military career and prompted the United States Congress to undertake a full investigation of the loss.</p><br>
<p>As a direct result of the Native American victory, the Legion of the United States was founded and placed under the command of General "Mad Anthony" Wayne. Wayne hoped to demonstrate that the United States Army could recover from this crushing defeat and emerge victorious in what was also known as "Little Turtles War." In late 1793, Wayne led 300 men to the site of St. Clairs defeat and deliberately had Fort Recovery built there. On December 25, they identified the site due to the large amount of unburied remains. Private George Will wrote that to set up camp, the unit had to move bones to make space for their beds. On June 30 of that year, a large Native American force and a few British officers conducted the Siege of Fort Recovery. Although the Legion suffered high casualties, they were able to maintain control of the fort, in part because they had recovered cannons lost by St. Clair in 1791. Wayne used Fort Recovery as a staging ground for advances into the territory. He ultimately defeated the Native American confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in August 1794. In 1795, confederacy representatives signed the Treaty of Greenville, which ceded control of most of the modern state of Ohio, using Fort Recovery as a reference point for the border between Native American and United States territories.</p><br>
<h2>Attack on Fort Recovery</h2><br>
<p>Fort Recovery had been garrisoned since spring 1794 by a 250-man detachment of Gen. Anthony Wayne&#39;s Legion of the United States.</p><br>
<p>On June 30, 1794, a United States supply column left Fort Recovery for Fort Greenville, under the command of Major William McMahon and escorted by ninety riflemen under Captain Asa Hartshome and fifty dragoons under Lieutenant Edmund Taylor. It had gone only about a quarter mile when it was attacked by Indians led by Shawnee war chief Blue Jacket, and including the young Tecumseh. The dragoons cut a retreat back to the fort, losing thirty-two killed (including Captain Hartshome and Cornet Daniel Torrey) and thirty wounded, while inflicting an unknown number of casualties on their attackers.</p><br>
<p>During the night, a scouting company under Captain William Wells reported that there were British officers behind the Indian lines, and that they had brought powder and cannonballs, but no cannons. The Indians were looking for USA cannons that had been buried after St. Clair&#39;s defeat, not knowing that these had already been recovered by the Legion of the United States. The next day, July 1, the Indian forces attacked the fort again, but they began to withdraw by noon, and they were gone by nightfall.</p><br>
<h2>Boundary marker -Treaty of Greenville</h2><br>
<p>Following Wayne&#39;s victory in the Battle of Fallen Timbers, the US offered peace in the 1795 Treaty of Greenville with the regional Indian tribes. Fort Recovery was used as a reference point to define the boundary line established by the treaty between the US and Indian tribal territory. In 1800, the fort was used as a reference point in defining the initial boundaries of the Indiana Territory, when that was first separated from the original Northwest Territory. When Ohio was admitted as a state in 1803, the western boundary was placed a few miles west of Fort Recovery.</p><br>
<h2>Fort Recovery Memorial</h2><br>
<p>In 1891, the battle sites around the fort were excavated. The remains of some 1200 people were buried in a memorial park established in downtown Fort Recovery. In 1908, President William Howard Taft signed a bill that allowed for the building of a monument for those killed under the commands of Arthur St. Clair and Anthony Wayne in Fort Recovery. In 1910, his administration gave the village of Fort Recovery $25,000 to commission the monument.</p><br>
<p>The monument, in the form of an obelisk, was built in 1912 and dedicated on July 1, 1913. The obelisk stands 101 ft tall. It weighs approximately 800 ST and cost $23,700 to build. Today that monument is part of a historical landmark known as Fort Recovery State Memorial, which is maintained by the Ohio Historical Society. A replica of Wayne&#39;s fort has two reconstructed blockhouses with a connecting stockade.</p><br>
<p>The Fort Recovery State Museum, opened in 1938 during the Great Depression. It features life-size dioramas of fort soldiers and the various Indian tribes involved in the fighting. Exhibits explain Wayne&#39;s campaign and include military and Indian artifacts, uniforms, weapons, paintings and maps. The museum features a gift shop and offers programs for school groups.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, students from Ball State University found the original location of a fort wall, not far from the Fort Recovery state museum.</p><br>
<p>Fort Laurens was an American Revolutionary War fort on a northern tributary of the Muskingum River in what would become Northeast Ohio, United States. The fort&#39;s location is in the present-day town of Bolivar, Ohio, along the Ohio and Erie Canal Towpath Trail.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>The fort was built by General Lachlan McIntosh, in early December, 1778, on the west bank of the Tuscarawas River, now in Tuscarawas County near the town of Bolivar. It was named after Henry Laurens, a president of the Continental Congress from South Carolina. The fort was used as a reference point in defining the boundary line in Treaty of Greenville, although the text of the treaty misspells the name as "Fort Lawrence".</p><br>
<p>The fort was intended to be a staging point for an attack against the British garrison at Detroit. However, the conditions at the fort were harsh during the winter, and McIntosh removed most of the American forces to Fort Pitt, leaving only about 150 men (from the 8th Pennsylvania Regiment and 13th Virginia Regiment) under the command of Colonel John Gibson. Fort Laurens was the only fort built in the Ohio Country during the Revolutionary War.</p><br>
<p>The fort was abandoned on August 2, 1779.</p><br>
<h2>Siege</h2><br>
<p>The British learned of the miserable conditions at the fort, and on February 22, 1779, Captain Henry Bird of the 8th Regiment of Foot with a handful of British soldiers and a couple hundred Wyandot, Mingo, Munsee, and Delaware warriors laid siege to the fort. The siege continued until mid-March, and the men inside the fort reportedly were reduced to making a stew of boiled moccasins.</p><br>
<p>The British forces were also weakened by the long siege and lifted the siege on March 20, 1779. American relief forces from Fort Pitt arrived three days later, leaving a force of 106 men behind under the command of Major Frederick Vernon. Colonel Daniel Brodhead had replaced McIntosh as commander at Fort Pitt and felt the fort was inadequate for mounting an attack on Fort Detroit.</p><br>
<h2>Fort Laurens Museum & Park</h2><br>
<p>The Ohio History Connection owns the site, and the Zoar Community Association operates the small museum at the site on behalf of OHC. The museums exhibits include information on frontier soldiers, a video about the forts history, and archaeological artifacts from the fort&#39;s excavation. The museum is located in a large park that is used for military reenactments. The fort is the site of the Tomb of the Unknown Patriot of the American Revolution, laid to rest with full military honors by the Ohio National Guard in 1976. A crypt in the museum wall also contains remains of soldiers who died defending the fort. The site is closed in the winter.</p><br>
<p>In 1970, the fort site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The Thomas Edison Center at Menlo Park, also known as the Menlo Park Museum / Edison Memorial Tower, is a memorial to inventor and businessman Thomas Alva Edison, located in the Menlo Park area of Edison, Middlesex County, New Jersey. The tower was dedicated on February 11, 1938, on what would have been the inventor&#39;s 91st birthday.</p><br>
<p>The tower marks the location of Edisons Menlo Park laboratory, the worlds first organized research and development site. He came to Menlo Park in 1876. The area was then known as Raritan Township, and later changed (in 1954) to Edison Township. Menlo Park is known as the Birthplace of Recorded Sound (November 1877), and the site of the worlds first practical incandescent lamp-light bulb (October 1879). Edison and his staff would create 400 of his most important inventions here. It was this site that Edison would fondly nickname his Invention Factory. Edison and his staff were working in New York City, building the worlds first central distribution site for electricity, when his wife Mary Stilwell Edison died at their Menlo Park home. He would later relocate to West Orange, New Jersey in 1884 to what is now the Thomas Edison National Historical Park. The original Menlo Park buildings began to deteriorate, and by 1926 most of the buildings had either collapsed or burned, and the only two remaining buildings were later moved to Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Michigan. The Thomas A. Edison Memorial Tower was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 30, 1979 as an important architectural and commemorative landmark.</p><br>
<p>The towers pinnacle is meant to represent an incandescent light bulb and originally included an audio system that according to a 2004 Weird NJ magazine could be heard from a distance of two miles. The American concrete pioneer John Joseph Earley was involved in its construction. The Tower, which rises 131 feet above the Terrace, is topped by a 13 8" foot high Bulb made of Pyrex segments by the Corning Corporation. The tower is listed on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places, and is now being restored, a project managed by The State of New Jersey.</p><br>
<p>The museum showcases many of Thomas Edisons creations including the phonograph and many of his light bulbs, as well as memorabilia relating to Edison and his inventions. The museum also showcases many images taken of Edisons property, inventions, and family.</p><br>
<p>The remainder of Edison&#39;s 36 acre estate is now the Edison State Park.</p><br>
<p>The Thomas Edison Center at Menlo Park is jointly administered by the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection&#39;s Division of Parks and Forestry, the Township of Edison, and the non-profit Edison Memorial Tower Corporation.</p><br>
<p>The Edison Memorial Tower Corporation, a 501(c)3, has been instrumental in having the current museum renovated. The renovated museum reopened on June 9, 2012, with old and newly acquired artifacts. The new professional interpretative exhibits were designed by Daniel Schnur.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration</h2><br>
<p>The tower underwent restoration from 2011-2015. Concrete samples were taken off the facade and sent to a laboratory where they were tested for their specific makeup. This is so the recreated panels could match the old ones that do not need replacing.</p><br>
<p>The Centennial Plaque, which was stolen a number of years ago, was also replaced during the restoration. The lower part of the plaque was sent to a Metallurgist in order to match the color.</p><br>
<p>The restoration was completed in October 2015, and a re-dedication ceremony was held on October 24, 2015. The ceremony showed off the newly refurbished tower, media system which played music from the tower&#39;s construction until the 50s, grounds, and concluded with the relighting of the large light bulb at the top of the tower.</p><br>
<h2>World&#39;s second largest light bulb</h2><br>
<p>The sphere atop the tower had been called the "worlds largest light bulb", however, in 2021, a larger light bulb, 17’ tall and 10’ in diameter, was installed in Tulsa, Oklahoma, on the plaza in front of the Cox Business Convention Center. Another famous sphere, the Union Watersphere, long-known as the "worlds tallest water sphere" is located in nearby Union.</p><br>
<h2>Eagle Scout/Girl Scout Projects</h2><br>
<p>The museum encourages local Boy Scout Eagle Projects and Girl Scout Gold Award projects on its grounds. Some of the projects are as follows:</p><br>
<p>- In 2009, one project added an educational sign directly across Christie Street from the museum. This sign contains information about the Electric Railroad Edison built in that spot.</p><br>
<p>- In 2013, a project added informational sign directly next to the museum. The sign contains information about the museum, the website, and hours of operation.</p><br>
<p>- In 2016, a project added an educational sign diagonally across from the museum site at the intersection of Christie Street and Tower Road. This sign sheds light on the Sarah Jordan Boarding House which once inhabited the site, and was moved in 1929 to Henry Fords Greenfield Village in Dearborn, MI. In addition to the sign, the project also added a stone brick outline of the houses foundation.</p><br>
<p>Hassel Island  is a small island of the USA Virgin Islands, a United States territory located in the Caribbean Sea. Hassel Island lies in the Charlotte Amalie harbor</p><br>
<p>just south of Saint Thomas and east of Water Island, with which it is part of the sub-district of Water Island.</p><br>
<p>The roughly 136 acre island was once a peninsula of Saint Thomas, known as Orkanhullet (Hurricane Hole). Hassel Island was separated by the Danish government in 1860, and named for the Hassel family who owned much of the estate.</p><br>
<p>In March 2012, the MTV&#39;s reality TV series The Real World was filmed for its twenty-seventh season on Hassel Island. The series was filmed at the Royal Mail Building which was the former quarters of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company. During the later 1900s it was operated as the Royal Mail Inn. It is the only season that the television series has filmed in the Caribbean. The season completed its filming two months later in May 2012. In 2015, that land was purchased to be used as a private home. There are under five homes built on this island. It does not seem to be a fast growing populous place, but rather is a more secluded National Park and limited number of private homes.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Careening Cove, a bay on Hassel Island, appears on maps as early as 1687.</p><br>
<p>The Danish used Hassel Island&#39;s strategic location to defend the busy Charlotte Amalie harbor in the 18th and 19th centuries.</p><br>
<p>The British occupied Hassel Island during the Napoleonic Wars.</p><br>
<p>The ruins of several British buildings remain on Hassel Island, including Fort Willoughby, which was built on the site of the older Prince Frederiks Battery (Fort Frederik), as well as Fort Shipley (Shipleys Battery) and Cowell&#39;s Battery. All three were constructed around 1801-1802.</p><br>
<p>In the 1840s, the St. Thomas Marine Railway Company constructed the St. Thomas Marine Railway Slip. Later renamed the Creque Marine Railway, it is one of the earliest steam-powered marine railways in the western hemisphere and perhaps the oldest surviving example of such a railway. The Hamburg-based Boulton Company built the railway&#39;s steam engine.</p><br>
<p>In the 1860s, the Danish government dug a channel that separated Hassel Island from Saint Thomas and improved the circulation of the Charlotte Amalie harbor.</p><br>
<p>The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company operated its West Indies hub on Hassel Island from about 1850 until the 1870s.</p><br>
<p>In 1871, the Hamburg America Line set up a coaling station on Hassel Island.</p><br>
<p>There was also a leprosarium on the island.</p><br>
<p>The channel was widened by the United States Army Corps of Engineers in 1919, shortly after the United States purchased the Danish West Indies. The United States Navy also established a naval station on the island, which was in operation during World War I and World War II.</p><br>
<p>In the middle of the 20th century, most of Hassel Island was owned by the prominent local Paiewonsky family. The Royal Mail Inn, a small hotel located on Hassel Island, built by the Paiewonsky family may have been the hotel immortalized in Herman Wouks novel Dont Stop the Carnival.</p><br>
<p>The Creque Marine Railway and a signal station at Cowell&#39;s Battery were in operation until the 1960s and 1970s, respectively.</p><br>
<p>The southern portion of the island was inscribed as a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976. In 1978, the historic district was expanded to cover the remainder of the island as well.</p><br>
<p>In 1978, the Virgin Islands National Park purchased most of the island from the Paiewonsky family. The rest of the island is divided between the territorial government and a few private residences.</p><br>
<p>Since around 2004, the Saint Thomas and Hassel Island Preservation Trust, the Virgin Islands National Park, the Saint Thomas Historical Trust and other organizations have been working to restore and preserve the island&#39;s historic sites. There are limited guided kayaking and hiking tours of the island.</p><br>
<p>Hassel Island is also the location for The Real World: St. Thomas, the twenty-seventh season of the reality show The Real World.</p><br>
<h2>Further reading</h2><br>
<p>Latif, Andreas & Martens, Vibe Maria:</p><br>
<p>The Penland School of Craft  is an Arts and Crafts educational center located in the Blue Ridge Mountains in Penland, North Carolina in the Snow Creek Township near Spruce Pine, about 50 miles from Asheville.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The school was founded in the 1920s in the isolated mountain town of Penland, Mitchell County, NC. In 1923, Lucy Morgan (1889–1981), a teacher at the Appalachian School who had recently learned to weave at Berea College, created an association to teach the craft The center, called Penland Weavers and Potters, Worst added classes in basketry and pottery.</p><br>
<p>Bill Brown, who took over in 1962 after Morgan, created a resident artist program and expanded the number and length of courses. There are 51 buildings on 400 acres. Penland buildings were designed primarily by North Carolinian architects, including Frank Harmon and Cannon Architects in Raleigh, North Carolina and Dixon Weinstein Architects in Chapel Hill.</p><br>
<p>The school campus was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2003 as the Penland School Historic District. The district encompasses 31 contributing buildings, 1 contributing site, and 3 contributing structures. The district is characterized by one- and two-story frame farmhouses dating from the turn of the 20th century, associated agricultural outbuildings, and</p><br>
<p>Rustic Revival style log buildings. Notable buildings include the Colonial Revival style Lily Loom House and Pines; the Craft Cabin; Homer Hall; Ridgeway; and Beacon Church.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Penland holds an annual Community Day in early March, when the school&#39;s studios are open and visitors can work on a small project with the help of the artists.</p><br>
<p>An exhibition of works created at Penland was held at the Mint Museum.</p><br>
<p>The Warehouse District is a nationally recognized historic district located in downtown Cleveland, Ohio. It is roughly bound by Front Avenue, Superior Avenue, West 3rd Street, and West 10th Street.</p><br>
<p>On September 30, 1982, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places as the Cleveland Warehouse District. On February 21, 2007, its boundary was increased to include 1384 to 1410 West 10th Street.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the first half of the 19th century, this neighborhood was part of Clevelands original residential area. Later in the century, it became the center of Clevelands wholesale commercial area, and was occupied by warehousing and distribution terminals for more than 100 years. But after warehouse traffic moved elsewhere, it fell into serious disrepair with empty, run-down warehouses. The area is historically anchored by major skyscrapers that echo Cleveland&#39;s industrial past, most notably the Rockefeller Building.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1970s, the Warehouse District underwent major renovation and revitalizing, with the buildings being repurposed as bars, restaurants, shops, nightclubs, and apartments for people seeking to live downtown, and eventually became a nightlife hotspot for 20-somethings and urban professionals, following a pattern pioneered in Cleveland by the Flats entertainment district, which it ultimately supplanted as the city&#39;s premier weekend place-to-be.</p><br>
<h2>From industrial to residential</h2><br>
<p>The metamorphosis to the Warehouse District&#39;s current state began with the opening of Hilarities Comedy Club in the late 1980s (Hilarities has since moved to E. 4th Street). The transformation of the district initially sought to attract artists in live-work spaces, but rent and popularity became too high, and drove artists to nearby Cleveland neighborhoods of Tremont or the St. Clair Superior.</p><br>
<p>Artists Steven B. Smith and S. Judson Wilcox were two early "urban pioneers": artists who settled the Warehouse District in Cleveland in 1981. Artists, musicians and renegades moved there to revel in Cleveland&#39;s industrial beauty.</p><br>
<p>Smith&#39;s spot in the warehouse became a gathering spot for other artists in the building, including S. Judson Wilcox, Melissa Jay Craig (AKA "Field Marshal May Midwest"), Laszlo Gyorki, Ken Nevadomi, Randy Rigutto, Jay Clements, Beth Wolfe and others.</p><br>
<p>Spaces Gallery was located on the first floor, making the warehouse the de facto epicenter of creative activity.</p><br>
<p>The affordability of Cleveland neighborhoods periodically caused mass migrations of artists. In the 80s, Smith was one of the urban pioneers to move into the Warehouse District. In 1985, he was one of many artists who moved from the warehouses to Tremont, in the typical pattern where artists move into undesirable but inexpensive neighborhoods, fixing up old buildings in which to live and work.</p><br>
<p>Although more than half of the original eight-block area has been razed and replaced by parking lots, by 2000 the remaining restored buildings were home to many restaurants and clubs. West Sixth Street is known as the heart of the district where various nightclubs, bars, and high-end restaurants are located.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood has also seen many of the rehabilitated warehouses converted to office and residential space. The ornate Victorian age facades of these historic warehouses are often preserved and restored, while the interiors of the buildings experience complete transformation into contemporary and trendy spaces. Its apartments and condominiums have been responsible for a large portion of downtown Cleveland&#39;s recent population growth. Most of the remaining structures have been rehabilitated, and developers have started to plan and build infill construction projects.</p><br>
<p>The San Jacinto Monument is a 567.31 ft column located on the Houston Ship Channel in unincorporated Harris County, Texas, about 16 miles due east of downtown Houston. The Art Deco monument is topped with a 220-ton star that commemorates the site of the Battle of San Jacinto, the decisive battle of the Texas Revolution. The monument, constructed between 1936 and 1939 and dedicated on April 21, 1939, is the worlds tallest masonry column and is part of the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site. By comparison, the Washington Monument is 554.612 ft tall, which is the tallest stone monument in the world. The column is an octagonal shaft topped with a 34 ft Lone Star &ndash; the symbol of Texas. Visitors can take an elevator to the monuments observation deck for a view of Houston and the San Jacinto battlefield.</p><br>
<p>The San Jacinto Museum of History is located inside the base of the monument and focuses on the history of the Battle of San Jacinto and Texas culture and heritage. The San Jacinto Battlefield, of which the monument is a part, was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 19, 1960, and is therefore also automatically listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It was designated a Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1992.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1856, the Texas Veterans Association began lobbying the state legislature to create a memorial to the men who died during the Texas Revolution. The legislature commemorated the final battle of the revolution in the 1890s, when funds were appropriated to purchase the land where the battle took place. After a careful survey to determine the boundaries of the original battle site, land was purchased for a new state park east of Houston, in 1897. This became San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site.</p><br>
<p>The Daughters of the Republic of Texas began pressuring the legislature to provide an official monument at the site of the Battle of San Jacinto. The chairman of the Texas Centennial Celebrations, Jesse H. Jones, provided an idea for a monument to memorialize all Texans who served during the Texas Revolution. Architect Alfred C. Finn provided the final design, in conjunction with engineer Robert J. Cummins.</p><br>
<p>In March 1936, as part of the Texas Centennial Celebration, ground was broken for the San Jacinto Monument. Construction began on April 21, 1936, the centennial anniversary date of the Battle of San Jacinto. The cornerstone was set one year later on April 21, 1937, and two years later construction ended, also on the anniversary date, April 21, 1939. Jesse H. Jones was in attendance along with the commencement ceremony in 1939 when he and Sam Houston&#39;s last surviving son, Andrew Jackson Houston, and others officially dedicated the monument. The project was completed in exactly three years costing $1.5 million. The funds were provided by both the Texas legislature and the United States Congress.</p><br>
<p>From its opening, the monument has been run by the nonprofit association, the San Jacinto Museum of History Association. In 1966, the monument was placed under the control of the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. The Parks Department allows the history association to continue its oversight of the monument.</p><br>
<p>The monument was renovated in 1983. In 1990, the base of the monument was redone to contain the San Jacinto Museum of History and the Jesse H. Jones Theatre for Texas Studies.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The San Jacinto monument is an octagonal column. It was built by W.S. Bellows Construction and primarily constructed of reinforced concrete. Its exterior is faced with Texas limestone from a quarry near the Texas State Capitol. It stands 567.31 ft tall and is the tallest monument column in the world. It is 9.6 ft taller than the next tallest, the Juche Tower in North Korea.</p><br>
<p>The base of the monument contains a 15,625 ft&sup2; museum and a 160-seat theater. The base is decorated with eight engraved panels depicting the history of Texas. The bronze doors which allow entry into the museum show the six flags of Texas. At the point where the shaft rises from the base, it is 48 ft square (2,304 ft&sup2;). The shaft narrows to 30 ft square (900 ft&sup2;) at the observation deck. At the top of the monument is a 220-ton, 34 ft high star, representing the Lone Star of Texas. A 1,750 by reflecting pool shows the entire shaft.</p><br>
<p>As of 2006, approximately 250,000 people visited the monument each year, including 40,000 children on school trips.</p><br>
<h2>Inscription</h2><br>
<p>An inscription on the monument tells the story of the birth of Texas:</p><br>
<p>Willamette Heritage Center is a museum in Salem, Oregon. The five-acre site features several structures listed on the National Register of Historic Places including the Thomas Kay woolen mill, the Jason Lee House, Methodist Parsonage, John D. Boon House, the Pleasant Grove  Church. The houses and church were relocated to the mill site. The Center also includes a research library and archives of Marion County history. Today, the Willamette Heritage Center offers self-guided tours, event rental spaces, educational classes, and also hosts local events for the community.</p><br>
<p>The Center was created in 2010 from the merger of the Mission Mill Museum Association (est. 1964) and the adjacent Marion County Historical Society (est. 1950).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Thomas Kay Woolen Mill was started in 1889 by Thomas Lister Kay, whose descendants eventually founded Pendleton Woolen Mills. The workforce of 50 labored 60-hour weeks. In 1895, a fire destroyed the mill. Ground was broken on a new mill structure on December 20, 1895, in the same location. This building, designed by architect W.D. Pugh, is the brick structure that stands today. The building opened to the public on May 15, 1896, to speeches, demonstrations and music.</p><br>
<p>The mill was operated by four generations of Kay family members. Thomas Lister Kay died in 1900 and his son Thomas B. Kay took over as president and served until his own death in 1931. Thomas B. Kays son Ercel took over for his father, and Ercels son Tom Kay took over for him.</p><br>
<p>The mill announced its closure in 1959, and all operations ceased by 1962.</p><br>
<p>Archeological digs on the northern part of the center&#39;s grounds led to the discovery of the site where a Methodist mission school stood before it was destroyed by fire in 1872.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>Visitors can tour the mill buildings with displays of original 19th and 20th century machinery and photos about industrial wool processing.</p><br>
<p>The houses and church have been restored and furnished to a mid 19th-century appearance. The Jason Lee House features a special exhibit about early Oregon during the time of the Methodist Mission.</p><br>
<p>The museum includes a water power interpretive exhibit by Portland General Electric. The exhibit demonstrates how the mill was run using the water from Mill Creek.</p><br>
<h2>Structures</h2><br>
<p>Jason Lee House (1841), a home of Jason Lee which, with the Parsonage, are the earliest known frame buildings in Salem, and perhaps the oldest remaining in the state</p><br>
<p>Methodist Mission Parsonage (1841)</p><br>
<p>John D. Boon House (1847)</p><br>
<p>Pleasant Grove Presbyterian Church (1858)</p><br>
<p>Thomas Kay Woolen Mill (1889/1896)</p><br>
<p>The Mohonk Mountain House, also known as Lake Mohonk Mountain House, is a resort hotel located south of the Catskill Mountains on the crest of the Shawangunk Ridge, New York. The property lies at the junction of the towns of New Paltz, Marbletown, and Rochester.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The National Historic Landmark Programs "Statement of Significance", as of the sites historic landmark designation in 1986, stated:</p><br>
<p>The resort is located on the shore of Lake Mohonk, which is half a mile (800 m) long and 60 ft deep. The main structure was built by Quaker twin brothers Albert and Alfred Smiley between 1869 and 1910.</p><br>
<p>From 1883 to 1916, annual conferences took place at Mohonk Mountain House, sponsored by Albert Smiley, to improve the living standards of Native American Indian populations. These meetings brought together government representatives of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the House and Senate committees on Indian Affairs, as well as educators, philanthropists, and Indian leaders to discuss the formulation of policy. The Haverford College library holds 22,000 records from the 34 conference reports for researchers and students of American history.</p><br>
<p>The hotel hosted the Lake Mohonk Conference on International Arbitration between 1895 and 1916, which was instrumental in creating the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague, Netherlands. Those conference papers were donated by the Smiley Family to Swarthmore College for research.</p><br>
<p>The house was given a United Nations Environment Programme Award in 1994 in honor of "125 years of stewardship". According to the National Trust for Historic Preservation, "Through its buildings and roads, its land, and its spirit, Mohonk exemplifies America&#39;s history and culture. Mohonk has since managed to maintain its 19th century character into the 21st century."</p><br>
<p>The resort was sued in 2014 by 200 guests who had become ill in a norovirus outbreak after staying there. They claimed that the owners had been aware of the gastrointestinal illness at the resort prior to the guests&#39; arrival. The resort settled the claims for $875,000 two years later.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Mohonk Mountain House has 259 guest rooms, including 28 tower rooms, an indoor pool and spa, and an outdoor ice-skating rink for winter use. The property consists of 1,325 acre, and much of it is landscaped with meadows and gardens. It adjoins the Mohonk Preserve, which is crisscrossed by 85 mi of hiking trails and carriage roads. The Smileys conveyed the majority of their property to the preserve, in 1963. At the time the preserve was called the Mohonk Trust.</p><br>
<h2>Notable guests</h2><br>
<p>Mohonk Mountain House has hosted many famous visitors including industrialist John D. Rockefeller, financier Charles A. Schmutz, naturalist John Burroughs, industrialist Andrew Carnegie, prolific author Isaac Asimov, and American presidents Rutherford B. Hayes, Chester A. Arthur, Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft and Bill Clinton. Guests have also included actor Alan Alda, former First Lady Julia Grant, author Thomas Mann, and religious leaders such as Theologian Lyman Abbott, Rabbi Louis Finkelstein, Reverend Ralph W. Sockman, Reverend Francis Edward Clark. `Abdul-Bahá, the eldest son of Baháʼí Faith founder Baháulláh, stayed there in 1912 during the Lake Mohonk Conference on International Arbitration as part of his journeys to the West. William James Roe II described the resort as a "palace of peace" after his stay there, writing an article of the same name, published in Harpers Young People. Actor Kevin Bacon has also stayed at the resort. Dee Snider of Twisted Sister fame often enjoys vacations at Mohonk with his family.</p><br>
<p>Ada Louise Huxtable, an architectural critic for The New York Times, also visited the resort, calling it "unspoiled" and praising its ability to capture the picturesque and sublime. She singled out the Lake Parlor and Lake Lounge as "notably good".</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The stone gatehouse appeared in the 1985 film The Stuff.</p><br>
<p>The resort was the filming location of the film The Road to Wellville (1994), starring Anthony Hopkins and Matthew Broderick.</p><br>
<p>The resort is mentioned in the 22nd episode of the eighth season of Blue Bloods.</p><br>
<p>Scenes from the Amazon Prime Video television series Upload were filmed at the resort.</p><br>
<p>The resort was featured in the second episode of the fifth season of Billions.</p><br>
<p>The resort was featured in the "Hudson Valley, N.Y." episode of Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations in 2010.</p><br>
<p>In the Stephen King novel The Regulators, the resort plays a minor role as a place fondly remembered by a protagonist. The epilogue is written as a typewritten letter on Mohonk stationery talking about some events at the resort.</p><br>
<h2>Awards</h2><br>
<p>Condé Nast Traveler has given it nine awards since 2008, including "Number One Resort Spa in the United States" (2013). Travel + Leisure has given the resort seven awards since 2009, including "Number Two Hotel Spa in the United States" (2013) and "Number Six Hotel Spa in the World" (2013).</p><br>
<p>Fodor&#39;s listed it as one of "10 Best Spa Trips" for 2012, and in 2010 named it as one of 10 Best Hotels for Kids and Families. In 2011, Every Day with Rachael Ray listed Mohonk as one of "Our Eight Favorite Resorts".</p><br>
<p>Mohonk Mountain House is a member of Historic Hotels of America, the official program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation.</p><br>
<p>In July 2024, Americas Great Resorts added the hotel to its Top Picks as a landmark property.</p><br>
<p>Hānaiakamalama or Queen Emma Summer Palace, served as a retreat for Queen Emma of Hawaii from 1857 to 1885, as well as for her husband King Kamehameha IV, and their son, Prince Albert Edward. It is a now a historic landmark, museum, and tourist site located at 2913 Pali Highway, less than a ten-minute drive outside of downtown Honolulu, Hawaii. The museum is open daily from 9:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m., and is maintained with entrance fees, revenue from the gift shop, and other funds raised by the Daughters of Hawaii.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Hānaiakamalama is located in the Nuuanu Valley, long a popular location first for Hawaiian chiefs and royalty, and later for non-Hawaiian residents, who found the cooler climate of the uplands more comfortable than downtown Honolulu. The Hawaiian name means either the Southern Cross or is the name of a benevolent goddess.</p><br>
<p>The frame of the home was built in Boston, in 1848, and shipped to Hawaii via Cape Horn. It was then assembled on a property purchased by John Lewis from the Kingdom of Hawaii. It had six rooms, one story, and a porch with Doric columns in the Greek Revival style.</p><br>
<p>In 1850, two years after it was completed, the home was purchased at auction by Keoni Ana (John Young II) for $6,000. Young owned the estate until 1857, when he gave it to his niece, Queen Emma. In 1869, Queen Emma added a large room called the Edinburgh Room to the rear of the structure, in preparation for the visit of the Duke of Edinburgh.</p><br>
<p>After Queen Emma&#39;s death in 1885, the Kingdom of Hawaii bought the estate. In 1911, Territorial Governor Walter F. Frear declared it a park to be maintained by the City and County of Honolulu. At one point, plans were made to build a baseball park over the site. However, the Daughters of Hawaii were able to acquire the building and have since restored and maintained it as a museum. The site was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in the 1970s.</p><br>
<h2>Current status</h2><br>
<p>Today, Queen Emma&#39;s Summer Palace sits on a 2.16 acre plot owned by the Queen Emma Estate, and maintained by the Daughters of Hawaii. The grounds are extensively landscaped, with many plants native to the Hawaiian Islands.</p><br>
<p>The house itself is a museum displaying Queen Emma&#39;s possessions, along with those of her husband, King Kamehameha IV, their son, Prince Albert Edward, and other members of the Hawaiian royal families. The rooms and their principal contents are as follows:</p><br>
<p>Entrance Hall - feather standards (kāhili); royal coat of arms.</p><br>
<p>Front Bedroom (originally the Dining Room) - Large bed of Acacia koa; Prince Alberts cradle; Queen Emmas sleigh bed; Prince Albert Edward&#39;s bathtub</p><br>
<p>Parlor - Queen Emma&#39;s baby grand piano; 3 feather capes; koa dining table and chairs; imari porcelain jardinière given by Emperor Meiji to King Kalākaua</p><br>
<p>Cloak Room - Royal feather cloak</p><br>
<p>Back Bedroom - Queen Emmas koa bed; Prince Albert Edwards koa crib; display cabinet with Prince Albert&#39;s velvet suit, etc.</p><br>
<p>Center Hall - Silver christening vessel given by Queen Victoria; tiger claw necklace; stereopticon given by Napoleon III on Queen Emma&#39;s visit to France in 1865; kapa cloth artifacts; feather standards (kāhili)</p><br>
<p>Edinburgh Room - Royal cabinet with china given by Queen Victoria; rosewood furniture; piano; chair and settee</p><br>
<p>The house also contains a number of portraits of historical interest. Subjects include William Charles Lunalilo, John Young II, Julia Alapai, Bernice Pauahi Bishop, Kamehameha III, Kamehameha IV, Kamehameha V, Queen Emma of Hawaii, Prince Albert Edward Kauikeaouli, etc.</p><br>
<h2>Nearby sites of interest</h2><br>
<p>Not far from Hānaiakamalama is the Pali Lookout, site of the battle of Nuʻuanu Pali, where Kamehameha I defeated the forces of the King of Oahu, consolidating his claim as monarch of the Hawaiian Islands.</p><br>
<p>Martin&#39;s Cove is a historic site in Wyoming. The 933 acre  cove is located 55 miles  southwest of Casper, Wyoming, in Natrona County. It is located on the Mormon Trail and is also part of the North Platte-Sweetwater segment of the Oregon Trail. The Cove was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on March 8, 1977.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Before the cross-country railroad was operational, about 70,000 Mormons traveled the Mormon Trail with almost 6,000 dying along the way. In November 1856, about 600 members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) emigrating in the Martin Handcart Company were halted for five days in the Cove by snow and cold while on their way to Salt Lake City. The Martin Handcart company had begun its journey on July 28, 1856 which was dangerously late in the season and would ultimately lead to the disaster. Although the number who died in the Cove is unknown, more than 145 members of the Martin Company died before reaching Salt Lake City. A few days prior to their arrival at Martins Cove, the company was met by a small rescue party with food, supplies, and wagons that Brigham Young, the church president, had sent from Salt Lake City, Utah. On November 4 the company and rescuers forded the bitterly cold Sweetwater River and sought shelter in the cove. That evening a powerful north wind blew the tents to the ground. The tents were set up again, but a blizzard brought heavy snow. The company remained in the camp for five days, unable to proceed due to the snow and cold. A number of the companys cattle died there and were preserved in a frozen state. When the weather warmed, on November 9, the company was able to move on toward Utah. With assistance from the original rescue party and from additional rescue parties that met them along the way, the survivors finally reached Salt Lake City on November 30.</p><br>
<p>Later many other emigrants would pass by the Cove on their way to Utah, California and Oregon along with Pony Express Riders. During the 1870s, Tom Sun, a French-Canadian frontiersman, purchased the area around the Cove and established Sun Ranch.</p><br>
<h2>Ownership</h2><br>
<p>Following the LDS Churchs purchase of nearby Sun Ranch in the 1990s it tried to purchase the Martins Cove property; to operate it as a historic site. In 2002, a congressional bill for the sale of the property passed the House, but then stalled in the Senate, due to worries about the sale of public land to a religious group. The concerns were mainly the result of the land including areas commonly used as campgrounds by emigrant trains, the Pony Express, and other landmarks such as Devil&#39;s Gate. As a result, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), part of the Interior Department, had to negotiate a long-term lease with the church. This lease was signed in 2004, and allowed the church to manage and maintain the property for 25 years.</p><br>
<p>In 2006, a settlement following a lawsuit by the American Civil Liberties Union, modified the way the site is administered, and required that the BLM remove religious references from the site and that the church provide a public entrance to the cove through their property, but independent of the Visitors Center. The churchs volunteers at the site were also required to simply answer questions rather than approach visitors with anything that could be interpreted as proselytizing.</p><br>
<h2>Visitors</h2><br>
<p>About 100,000 people visit the site each year, with the majority being LDS Church members. Every year thousands of the churchs youth participate in "Handcart Treks" through the area near Martins Cove. These Treks involve dressing up in period clothing while spending several days pulling handcarts and camping out along the Mormon Trail. The highlight of their Trek is visiting Martins Cove and nearby Devils Gate, along with the LDS Visitors&#39; Center.</p><br>
<p>The Fred F. French Building is a skyscraper at 551 Fifth Avenue on the northeast corner with 45th Street in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. Designed by H. Douglas Ives along with John Sloan and T. Markoe Robertson of the firm Sloan & Robertson, it was erected in 1927. The building is named for Fred F. French, owner of the Fred F. French Companies, for whom the structure was commissioned.</p><br>
<p>The 38-story building is designed in the Art Deco style, with Middle Eastern influences, and contains numerous setbacks as mandated by the 1916 Zoning Resolution. The facade is mostly designed with brick walls and limestone trim. The base of the facade is ornamented with two bronze entrances and multiple mythological figures, while the top contains a "tower" with Mesopotamian style bas-reliefs and faience tiles. Other multicolored details such as ornamental friezes ornament the facade. The Middle Eastern design motifs are also used in the lobby, which contains a polychrome vaulted ceiling.</p><br>
<p>The Fred F. French Building has approximately 430,000 ft2 for rent and is owned by The Feil Organization. It was the tallest building on Fifth Avenue as well as one of the most desired addresses on the avenue upon its completion. By the 1990s, it underwent a complete restoration, subsequently earning the Building Owners and Managers Association&#39;s 1994/1995 Historic Building of the Year Award. The Fred F. French Building and its interior became New York City designated landmarks in 1986, and the building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2004.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>The Fred F. French Building is at the northeast corner of Fifth Avenue and 45th Street in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. Its plot is largely rectangular but has a small cutout on the northwestern portion. The building adjoins a 20-story building at 553 Fifth Avenue, which is L-shaped and occupies the cutout, as well as a nine-story building at 9 East 45th Street.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Fred F. French Building was designed by H. Douglas Ives with Sloan & Robertson in the Art Deco style and completed in 1927. The building is named for Fred F. French, the head of the French Companies, whose other projects in the city included Tudor City and Knickerbocker Village. The Fred F. French Building rises 38 stories, rising 426 ft tall, and contains several setbacks on all sides as mandated under the 1916 Zoning Resolution. It was one of the first few skyscrapers to be built with a mostly rectangular plan; previous buildings had been erected with largely square plans.</p><br>
<p>The Fred F. French Building was described by architectural writer Carol Herselle Krinsky as the "only Mesopotamian skyscraper" in New York City. Ives wrote that the buildings colorful design took after Middle Eastern architectural features such as ziggurats. The colors used in the Fred F. French Buildings facade were intended to evoke that of the Tower of Babel. Furthermore, modern building codes prevented the inclusion of cornices and other decorative elements that projected more than 18 in from the facade, as had been standard in older buildings. Because of the different influences, Ives said he felt "somewhat at a loss" when asked to describe the building&#39;s design.</p><br>
<h3>Form and facade</h3><br>
<p>The Fred F. French Building&#39;s official address is 551 Fifth Avenue, The building was designed with profit as the main consideration, so the shorter side along Fifth Avenue was intended for highly valuable retail space. The building is one of the few remaining towers which maintains its entrance on 5th Avenue The building consists of a base spanning the 1st to 3rd stories; a midsection from the 4th to the 19th floors, with multiple setbacks; and a rectangular "tower" that is capped by a three-story penthouse above the 35th floor. Each of the four primary elevations of the facade has a different massing. The northern and eastern elevations face other buildings, but the southern and western elevations face 45th Street and Fifth Avenue respectively.</p><br>
<p>The Fred F. French Building&#39;s Middle Eastern decoration was intended to be colorful and noticeable from afar, rather than historically accurate. The facade is accented with terracotta bands of various colors including hues of red and black.</p><br>
<h4>Base</h4><br>
<p>On Fifth Avenue and on 45th Street, the first story is topped by a bronze frieze that contains depictions of winged beasts and stylized glyphs. The entrances are set within bronze arches, which contain coffered piers; symbols of architecture and industry in their spandrels; and bronze letters reading above each arch. Above the second story, on both Fifth Avenue and 45th Street, are limestone friezes reading. Flagpoles project from the second story in the second and fifth bays from the north on Fifth Avenue. The third story, on both Fifth Avenue and 45th Street, contains two slightly recessed one-over-one sash windows in each bay. A cornice runs above the third floor.</p><br>
<p>The base of the facade on Fifth Avenue is divided into five bays by double-story limestone piers. The entrance on Fifth Avenue, in the second bay from north, contains an outer vestibule under the arch, outside the entrance doors. The vestibules ceiling consists of a depressed barrel vault with a bronze and crystal chandelier, as well as painted stepped corners and bas-relief polychrome beasts. The vestibule has an Italian travertine floor with beige stone lozenges, black and white marble triangles, and brass strips. The sides of the vestibule have bronze display windows, and the vestibule has two bronze revolving doors, topped by inscribed panels with the buildings name and address. Historically, the northernmost bay had a glass storefront and granite water table at ground level, which was later replaced. The other three bays on Fifth Avenue also have replacement glass storefronts and water tables.</p><br>
<p>The base of the facade on 45th Street is divided into twelve bays by double-story limestone piers. The main entrance is in the eighth bay from the west and contains an arched vestibule. The vestibule is enclosed behind double glass doors and a bronze-and-glass transom. Its design is the same as that of the outer vestibule of the Fifth Avenue entrance. The decorations include bearded genies and 25 panels depicting Mesopotamian women. The other eleven bays on 45th Street contain glass storefronts and water tables in various conditions.</p><br>
<h4>Upper stories</h4><br>
<p>The 4th through 19th stories comprise the midsection of the building and are clad with russet colored brick. The 4th through 11th floors rise directly from the lot lines before setting back at various depths. The setbacks are decorated with limestone-trimmed friezes containing black ornament. Limestone windowsills were used on the facades facing the street, and precast concrete was used above setbacks at places where these windows could not be seen from street level. The windows on these stories are all sash windows, two per bay on each floor. The capitals of the piers are clad in light green faience with small rosettes.</p><br>
<p>The 20th through 38th stories comprise the "tower" of the building. The setbacks atop the tower are more gradual from the northern and southern elevations, while the eastern and western elevations set back more abruptly to the penthouse. The tower section measures only two bays wide on its western and eastern elevations. An orange-and-green belt course of faience tiles runs above the 31st floor.</p><br>
<p>Near the top of the building, there are faience panels with sunburst designs on the north and south elevations, with red, orange, gold, and green tiles. The sunburst designs were used to symbolize progress, while winged griffons depicting integrity and watchfulness flank each sunburst. Two beehives, each surrounded by five bees, separate the sunbursts and griffins. The narrower west and east elevations contain mosaic depictions of Mercury, the Roman god of trade. Faience spandrels and an orange-and-green frieze depicting serpents are placed above the 38th floor. The windows of the penthouse are arranged in several configurations. A metal fire escape runs along the eastern elevation. Atop the penthouse is a flat roof with a water tower. The use of a flat roof deviated from previous Art Deco designs, which typically had stepped pinnacles. The rooftop water tower contains bas reliefs on green background surrounded by a frame of red faience. At night, the building&#39;s pinnacle was illuminated.</p><br>
<h3>Features</h3><br>
<p>The Fred F. French Building contained the most up-to-date designs and machinery when it was completed. Its innovations included an electric plumbing system, automatic elevators, and lighting and ventilation systems that could be "conveniently controlled", as described in the French Companies&#39; magazine The Voice. The building also contains bronze ornamental work created by Russian-American artist Vincent Glinsky.</p><br>
<p>The building has eleven elevators. Ten of these run from the lobby and are separated into two banks of five units each. One bank serves all stories from the 1st to 16th floors, while the other runs nonstop from the lobby to the 17th floor, serving all floors through the 35th. From the 35th floor, a single elevator rises to the 38th story. Additionally, two stairways connect each of the floors. From the buildings completion, the elevators were semi-automatically operated Otis cabs, one of the first such installations in the city. Elevator operators were retained only to push buttons for certain floors upon passengers request and to bypass floors when the cabs were full.</p><br>
<h4>Lobby</h4><br>
<p>The first-floor lobby is L-shaped and consists of a longer wing extending west from the elevator lobby to Fifth Avenue, as well as a shorter corridor to the 45th Street entrance vestibule. The lobby walls are clad with marble. The lobby contains decorative details such as chevrons, palmettes, volutes, merlons, and lotus flowers as well as representations of animals such as lions and winged bulls. The passageway from 45th Street is wider because the main entrance is on that side.</p><br>
<p>The passageway from Fifth Avenue is narrower and is divided by pilasters into several bays, each of which contains a multicolored vault with beasts and pattern. A gilded plaster frieze runs near the top of the wall. The revolving doors from Fifth Avenue are flanked by capitals with double bulls&#39; heads, inspired by those that were originally in the Palace of Darius in Susa. The design of the Fifth Avenue corridor was intended to draw visitors from the entrance to the elevator hall, and it also concealed the slight downward slope that existed between the Fifth Avenue and 45th Street entrances.</p><br>
<p>The elevator lobby contains several decorative bronze elements. The walls have three tenant-directory boards with ornamental bronze frames. The gilt-bronze double-leaf elevator doors in the lobby each have eight panels (four on each leaf) depicting sectors in which Fred French had businesses, including industry, commerce, finance, and building. An Assyrian Revival mailbox is mounted on the wall between the two elevator banks; the mailbox contains a depiction of a bald eagle, the symbol of the United States Post Office, as well as two winged griffins.</p><br>
<h4>Upper stories</h4><br>
<p>The building has approximately 430,000 ft2 for rent. The upper stories have different floor areas and shapes, and the higher floors had smaller areas because of the setbacks on the exterior. The 2nd through 11th stories had 16,000 ft2 per floor; the 29th through 35th stories in the tower have 4,000 ft2 per floor; and the penthouse has 2,400 ft2 per floor. The stories of the base have a floor plan that is clustered around a largely L-shaped passageway. The upper floors have passageways in various layouts to reflect the different shapes and sizes of each story. Usually, on stories where a tenant rented an entire floor, the layout of that floor contained an open plan.</p><br>
<p>Unlike the lobby, the office stories were not decorated in the Mesopotamian style and were instead designed to tenants&#39; specifications. Some floors still contain their original furnishings, including mail chutes made of glass and bronze, as well as room-number signs and elevator floor indicators made of bronze. The interiors were originally finished with a marble molding at the baseboard, as well as wooden doorways and doors. Tenants modified the interiors on some floors with a myriad of designs, although some modern finishes were placed on top of the original furnishings. The remodeled floors contain finishes made of carpet, stone tiles, plastic tiles, or wood floors. The remodeled walls are made of sheetrock or paper, and they have baseboards made of plastic, stone, or wood. Dropped ceilings are used in almost all locations where the interiors were remodeled.</p><br>
<p>On the 12th and 13th floors were the French Companies offices, designed in the Tudor style, The 12th floor remains largely intact but some of these finishes were changed after the Fred F. French Company moved out during the 1980s. The 12th-floor elevator lobby contains green carpets, stone walls, a decorative plaster coffered ceiling, and marble baseboards and door surrounds. A circular stair west of the elevators leads to the 13th floor and contains green marble risers, black stone steps, and a handrail and balustrade made of bronze. From the elevator lobby, a doorway leads to a rectangular reception hall with predominantly green and white designs; the walls and ceiling are similar to the elevator lobby, but the tile floors and baseboards are made of black marble. An I-shaped reception area for the Fred F. French Company is to the east of the reception hall and contains wooden decorative elements and black marble floors. A conference room with wood decorations is south of the reception hall. A corridor with wood decorations and dropped ceiling leads east of the reception hall and south of the French Company reception area. At the eastern end of the French Company reception area is the rectangular executive secretarys office, with cast ornamental details on the ceiling. Fred Frenchs office was "reputed" to be in the L-shaped room north of the executive secretarys office and had similar decoration.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Fifth Avenue was being developed with office and commercial buildings at the beginning of the 20th century. The completion of the underground Grand Central Terminal in 1913 resulted in the rapid development of Terminal City, the area around Grand Central, as well as a corresponding increase in real-estate prices. By the 1920s, Fifth Avenue was the most active area for development in Midtown, and developers were starting to build north of 45th Street, which had previously been considered the boundary for profitable developments. The most active year for construction in that decade was 1926, when thirty office buildings were constructed on Fifth Avenue. The two-block-wide area between Fifth and Park Avenues represented eight percent of Manhattan&#39;s land area, but it constituted twenty-five percent of developments that commenced in the borough between 1924 and 1926.</p><br>
<p>The French Companies was founded in 1910, and it built a 16-story headquarters at Madison Avenue and 41st Street in 1920. By the mid-1920s, the company was one of New York Citys largest development firms, and it was looking for a new site for its headquarters. Among the French Companies largest projects was the Tudor City apartment complex on the east side of Manhattan.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Fred French bought 19,000 ft2 at the northeast corner of Fifth Avenue and 45th Street in March 1925, with frontage of 200 ft on 45th Street and 78.5 ft on Fifth Avenue. He planned to build a 31-story office building for the French Companies&#39; headquarters, with a banking hall on the lower stories. The building at the corner, measuring 25 by, alone had cost $300,000.</p><br>
<p>The French Companies obtained title to the site in May 1925. Sloan & Robertson filed preliminary plans for the Fred F. French Building that August. The building would have risen 31 stories and 385 ft. A subsequent two-story addition was rejected because it did not fit zoning codes, which Sloan & Robertson appealed. Ultimately, the architects were granted a variance to construct a 38-story, 416.58 ft building, the second tallest in the surrounding area, behind only H. Craig Severance&#39;s 432 ft Harriman Building at 44th Street and Fifth Avenue. Final plans for the Fred F. French Building were filed in March 1926.</p><br>
<p>Construction on the Fred F. French Building commenced on May 22, 1926, and the steel frame was topped out within four months. In October 1926, a $4.5 million mortgage was placed on the building. For unknown reasons, the project was delayed by seven months, and it opened on October 24, 1927. Had the Fred F. French Building opened on time, it would have claimed the title of tallest building along Fifth Avenue, but ultimately it was the second-tallest behind the Harriman Building. The Fred F. French Building was the French Companies&#39; first commercial building to be completed under the "French Plan", a company philosophy that prioritized small returns on large ventures, rather than large returns on small ventures. Furthermore, the Fred F. French Building was one of the first retail skyscrapers to be built on this section of Fifth Avenue.</p><br>
<h3>Mid-20th century</h3><br>
<p>By 1934, the ground-floor corner space in the Fred F. French Building had become a French restaurant. During the mid-20th century, the Fred F. French Building gained other tenants such as diamond dealer Louis Roselaar, the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, and the Brazilian government&#39;s trade bureau, as well as several advertising firms and three insurance companies. The ground-floor corner space became home to The Cattleman restaurant by 1967.</p><br>
<h3>Late 20th and early 21st centuries</h3><br>
<p>The building was purchased by financial services company MetLife in 1985, and the French Companies subsequently moved out. During the 1990s, the Fred F. French Building underwent a complete restoration. Although the faience panels were largely undamaged, the terracotta was replaced because of rust. The lobby was re-gilt and the ceiling was repainted; in addition, the elevators from the lobby were totally replaced. The renovation earned the Building Owners and Managers Association&#39;s 1994/1995 Historic Building of the Year Award. Pace University rented some space in the building for use as classrooms in 1997.</p><br>
<p>A group of investors led by The Feil Organization bought the Fred F. French Building for $128 million as part of a move by MetLife to sell off its real estate portfolio. The partnership included Lloyd Goldman and his family, as well as Stanley Chera. At the time, Morton&#39;s The Steakhouse was among the tenants in the Fred F. French Building, as was the British Tourist Authority. In 2012, retailer Tommy Bahama opened a three-story flagship store and restaurant in the Fred F. French Building. By the middle of that decade, the building had tenants such as Denihan Hospitality Group, ABM Industries, and law firm Kleinberg, Kaplan, Wolff & Cohen.</p><br>
<h2>Reception and landmark designations</h2><br>
<p>There was mixed commentary on the Fred F. French Buildings design. George S. Chappell lamented the "rows of dreary factory windows" in The New Yorker, rhetorically commenting: "Cant the Fifth Avenue Association do something about this?" The WPA Guide to New York City described the faience panels as being "of questionable taste." Other criticism of the building was more positive. Paul Goldberger of The New York Times called the building one of the "best slab-shaped buildings of the 1920&#39;s". Upon its opening, the building was characterized as being "one of the most popular business palaces in the entire midtown section" because of its technologically advanced systems, central location, and elaborate decoration. The writer Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis said in 2021 that the Fred F. French Building "embodies the eclectic nature of many Neo-Antique buildings".</p><br>
<p>The buildings shape was also praised. According to the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC), the Fred F. French Building so exactly conformed to the 1916 Zoning Resolution that it was illustrated in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language to accompany the definition of the word "setback". Robert A. M. Stern said that the Fred F. French Building "demonstrated that a slab could retain the iconic clarity of the skyscraper type and provide more rentable space per square foot of ground area". The Fred F. French Buildings name also received notice; as the British broadcaster Alistair Cooke said, "It was marvelous that here a man should not only get his name on a building, but get his name with his middle initial on a building."</p><br>
<p>In the 1980s, a group of preservationists began surveying the citys buildings for possible sites that could be designated as interior landmarks by the LPC, with the Fred F. French Buildings lobby being considered as one such landmark. The LPC designated the building and its lobby as city landmarks on March 18, 1986. In its report about the building&#39;s interior, the LPC described the building as having a "proto-Art Deco" design. The building was also listed on the National Register of Historic Places on January 28, 2004.</p><br>
<p>Green Mount Cemetery is a historic rural cemetery in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. Established on March 15, 1838, and dedicated on July 13, 1839, it is noted for the large number of historical figures interred in its grounds as well as many prominent Baltimore-area families. It retained the name Green Mount when the land was purchased from the heirs of Baltimore merchant Robert Oliver. Green Mount is a treasury of precious works of art, including striking works by major sculptors including William H. Rinehart and Hans Schuler.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1980. Guided tours are available at various times of the year.</p><br>
<p>A Baltimore City Landmark plaque at the entrance reads:</p><br>
<p>In addition to John Wilkes Booth, two other conspirators in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln are buried here, Samuel Arnold and Michael O&#39;Laughlen. It is common for visitors to the cemetery to leave pennies on the graves of the three men; the one-cent coin features the likeness of the president they successfully sought to murder.</p><br>
<p>The abdicated King Edward VIII and his wife, the Duchess of Windsor, had planned for a burial in a purchased plot in Rose Circle at Green Mount Cemetery, near where the father of the Duchess was interred. However, in 1965 an agreement with Queen Elizabeth II allowed for the former king and duchess to be buried near other members of the British royal family in the Royal Burial Ground near Windsor Castle.</p><br>
<h2>Notable interments</h2><br>
<p>* Arunah Abell (1808–1888), journalist, newspaper publisher.</p><br>
<p>* William Julian Albert (1816–1879), U.S. Congressman.</p><br>
<p>* Harry W. Archer Jr. (died 1910), American politician and lawyer</p><br>
<p>* Henry W. Archer (1813–1887), American politician and lawyer</p><br>
<p>* James J. Archer (1860–1921), American politician</p><br>
<p>* Samuel Arnold (1834–1906), Lincoln assassination conspirator.</p><br>
<p>* James Bankhead (1783–1856), U. S. Army General that served in the War of 1812, Second Seminole War, and Mexican–American War.</p><br>
<p>* Robert T. Banks (1822–1901), Mayor of Baltimore</p><br>
<p>* Daniel Moreau Barringer (1806–1873), a United States Congressman and diplomat.</p><br>
<p>* James Lawrence Bartol (1813–1887), American jurist</p><br>
<p>* Joseph Colt Bloodgood (1867–1935), American surgeon</p><br>
<p>* A. Aubrey Bodine (1906–1970), photographer.</p><br>
<p>* Elizabeth ("Betsy") Patterson Bonaparte (1785–1879), Baltimore-born wife of Napoleon&#39;s brother, Jérôme Bonaparte.</p><br>
<p>* Carroll Bond (1873–1943), jurist.</p><br>
<p>* Elijah Bond, (1847–1921), lawyer and inventor.</p><br>
<p>* Asia Frigga (Booth) Clarke, (1835–1888), author and sister of John Wilkes Booth.</p><br>
<p>* John Wilkes Booth (1838–1865), assassin of President Abraham Lincoln.</p><br>
<p>* Junius Brutus Booth (1796–1852), English actor.</p><br>
<p>* Augustus Bradford (1806–1881), Governor of Maryland.</p><br>
<p>* Joseph Lancaster Brent (1826–1905) lawyer and politician in California, Louisiana and Maryland, and general in the Confederate army.</p><br>
<p>* Jesse D. Bright (1812–1875), United States Senator from Indiana.</p><br>
<p>* Nathan C. Brooks (1809–1898), American educator, historian and poet</p><br>
<p>* Frank Brown (1846–1920), Governor of Maryland</p><br>
<p>* Edward Nathaniel Brush (1852–1933), psychiatrist and superintendent of the Sheppard and Enoch Pratt Hospital</p><br>
<p>* James M. Buchanan (1803–1876), judge and United States Ambassador to Denmark.</p><br>
<p>* James Buck (1808–1865), American Civil War Medal of Honor recipient.</p><br>
<p>* John Archibald Campbell (1811–1889), United States Supreme Court Justice.</p><br>
<p>* John Lee Chapman (1811–1880), Mayor of Baltimore, glass maker, railroad executive.</p><br>
<p>* George Colton (1817–1898), member of the Maryland House of Delegates</p><br>
<p>* Albert Constable (1805–1855), member of the U.S. House of Representatives</p><br>
<p>* Henry Winter Davis (1817–1865), U.S. Congressman for Maryland&#39;s 3rd District, 1863–65.</p><br>
<p>* William Daniel, state legislator and Prohibition Party vice presidential candidate, 1884.</p><br>
<p>* Allen Welsh Dulles (1893–1969), director of the Central Intelligence Agency and a member of the Warren Commission.</p><br>
<p>* Wendell E. Dunn (1894–1965), educator and principal of Forest Park High School.</p><br>
<p>* Wendell E. Dunn, Jr. (1922–2007), metallurgist and chemical engineer.</p><br>
<p>* Thomas Dunn (1925–2008), musician and conductor.</p><br>
<p>* Johnny Eck (1911–1991), American freak show performer born without legs.</p><br>
<p>* Arnold Elzey (1816–1871), Confederate Civil War general.</p><br>
<p>* George F. Emmons (1811–1884), Rear Admiral, United States Navy.</p><br>
<p>* D. Hopper Emory (1841–1916), Maryland state senator</p><br>
<p>* George Hyde Fallon (1902–1980), U.S. Congressman, 4th District of Maryland.</p><br>
<p>* Henry D. Farnandis (1817–1900), Maryland state politician and lawyer.</p><br>
<p>* Charles W. Field (1857–1917), Maryland state delegate.</p><br>
<p>* Elizabeth Gault Fisher (1909–2000), entomologist, bacteriologist, and bryologist.</p><br>
<p>* Richard Fuller (1804–1876), minister and founder of the Southern Baptist movement.</p><br>
<p>* William H.B. Fusselbaugh, member of the Maryland House of Delegates</p><br>
<p>* Charles D. Gaither (1860–1947), U.S. Army officer, Baltimore police commissioner, member of the Maryland House of Delegates</p><br>
<p>* George M. Gill (1803–1887), lawyer.</p><br>
<p>* James Hall (1802–1889), founder of Maryland-in-Africa</p><br>
<p>* Robert G. Harper (1765–1825), United States Senator from Maryland.</p><br>
<p>* Solomon Hillen Jr. (1810–1873), Mayor of Baltimore, U.S. Representative from Maryland, member of the Maryland House of Delegates</p><br>
<p>* Johns Hopkins (1795–1873), businessman and philanthropist. His bequests helped found the Johns Hopkins University and Johns Hopkins Hospital.</p><br>
<p>* Benjamin Chew Howard (1791–1872), a congressman and reporter of decisions of the United States Supreme Court</p><br>
<p>* Benjamin Huger (1805–1877), a career United States Army ordnance officer and a Confederate general in the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>* Jesse Hunt (1793–1872), mayor of Baltimore.</p><br>
<p>* Obed Hussey (1792–1860), inventor and rival of Cyrus McCormick.</p><br>
<p>* Henry Barton Jacobs (1858–1939), physician and educator</p><br>
<p>* John Hanson Thomas Jerome (1816–1863), Mayor of Baltimore</p><br>
<p>* Reverdy Johnson (1796–1876), statesman, United States Senator and United States Attorney General.</p><br>
<p>* Joseph Eggleston Johnston (1807–1891), military officer in the Confederate States Army.</p><br>
<p>* Isaac Dashiell Jones (1806–1893), U.S. Congressman</p><br>
<p>* Anthony Kennedy (1810–1892), United States Senator.</p><br>
<p>* John P. Kennedy (1795–1870), congressman and United States Secretary of the Navy.</p><br>
<p>* Harriet Lane (1830–1903), niece of President James Buchanan, acted as First Lady of the United States from 1857 to 1861.</p><br>
<p>* Sidney Lanier (1842–1881), musician and poet.</p><br>
<p>* Benjamin Henry Latrobe, Jr. (1806–1878), civil engineer and Green Mount&#39;s landscape architect.</p><br>
<p>* Ferdinand Claiborne Latrobe (1833–1911), Mayor of Baltimore and speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates</p><br>
<p>* John H. B. Latrobe (1803–1891), lawyer and inventor.</p><br>
<p>* James O. Law (1809–1847), Mayor of Baltimore and merchant.</p><br>
<p>* James Fenner Lee (1843–1898), member of the Maryland Senate</p><br>
<p>* Walter Lord (1917–2002), author, best known for his book on the sinking of the RMS Titanic, A Night to Remember.</p><br>
<p>* John Gresham Machen (1881–1937), Presbyterian theologian and founder of Westminster Theological Seminary in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.</p><br>
<p>* John MacTavish (1787–1852), British Consul to Maryland in the 1840s.</p><br>
<p>* Henry Mankin (1804–1876), General and Shipping Tycoon and founder of Hampden a neighborhood in Baltimore, Maryland.</p><br>
<p>* Charles Marshall (1830–1902), colonel in the Confederate States Army, aide de camp, assistant adjutant general, and military secretary for the Army of Northern Virginia and Gen. Robert E. Lee.</p><br>
<p>* Theodore R. McKeldin (1900–1974), Mayor of Baltimore and Governor of Maryland.</p><br>
<p>* Louis McLane (1786–1857), United States Congressman from Delaware, United States Secretary of the Treasury, and later the United States Secretary of State.</p><br>
<p>* Robert Milligan McLane (1815–1898), Governor of Maryland.</p><br>
<p>* Louis Wardlaw Miles (1873–1944), World War I Medal of Honor Recipient.</p><br>
<p>* Arthur C. Needles (1867–1936), president of the Norfolk and Western Railroad.</p><br>
<p>* John Nelson (1794–1860), United States Attorney General.</p><br>
<p>* Benjamin Franklin Newcomer (1827–1901), railroad executive and bank president.</p><br>
<p>* Harry W. Nice (1877–1941), Governor of Maryland.</p><br>
<p>* Daniel S. Norton (1829–1870), United States Senator from Minnesota.</p><br>
<p>* Michael O&#39;Laughlen (1840–1867), Lincoln assassination conspirator.</p><br>
<p>* Enoch Pratt (1808–1896), businessman and philanthropist, founder of Baltimore&#39;s public library system and co-founder of the Sheppard Pratt Hospital.</p><br>
<p>* James H. Preston (1860–1938), 35th Mayor of Baltimore.</p><br>
<p>* James R. Price (1862–1929), sports journalist and executive.</p><br>
<p>* Edward Coote Pinkney (1802–1828), poet.</p><br>
<p>* John P. Poe, Sr. (1836–1909), Attorney General of Maryland, 1891–95.</p><br>
<p>* Isaac Freeman Rasin (1833–1907), Baltimore politician and political boss</p><br>
<p>* William Henry Rinehart (1825–1874), sculptor.</p><br>
<p>* Cadwalader Ringgold (1802–1867), U.S. Navy officer.</p><br>
<p>* Albert C. Ritchie (1876–1936), Governor of Maryland, 1920–35.</p><br>
<p>* Winford Henry Smith (1877–1961), physician.</p><br>
<p>* William Wallace Spence (1815–1915), financier.</p><br>
<p>* Major General George H. Steuart (1790–1867), a United States Army general in the War of 1812.</p><br>
<p>* George H. Steuart (1828–1903), Confederate Civil War general.</p><br>
<p>* Thomas Swann (1809–1883), Governor of Maryland, 1866–69, U.S. Congressman for Maryland&#39;s 3rd and 4th Districts, 1869–79, Mayor of Baltimore, 1856–60.</p><br>
<p>* Joseph Pembroke Thom (1828–1899), member of the Maryland House of Delegates, military officer in the Mexican–American War and Confederate States Army.</p><br>
<p>* Isaac R. Trimble (1802–1888), U.S. Army officer, civil engineer, railroad construction superintendent and executive, and a Confederate general in the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>* Daniel Turner (1794–1850), United States Navy officer during the War of 1812.</p><br>
<p>* Erastus B. Tyler (1822–1891), Union Army general in the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>* Martha Ellicott Tyson (1795–1873), Quaker elder, author, and co-founder of Swarthmore College</p><br>
<p>* John B. Van Meter (1842–1930) U.S. Navy chaplain, academic, and co-founder of Goucher College</p><br>
<p>* Joshua Van Sant (1803–1884), Mayor of Baltimore</p><br>
<p>* John Carroll Walsh (1816–1894), state senator</p><br>
<p>* Henry Walters (1848–1931), president of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, art collector whose bequest to the City of Baltimore in 1931 started the Walters Art Museum.</p><br>
<p>* William Thompson Walters (1820–1894), liquor distributor, banker, railroad magnate and art collector.</p><br>
<p>* Teackle Wallis Warfield (1869–1896), Father of Wallis Simpson, Duchess of Windsor. Wife of Prince Edward Duke of Windsor.</p><br>
<p>* William Pinkney Whyte (1824–1908), Maryland State Delegate, State Comptroller, a United States Senator, the State Governor, the Mayor of Baltimore, and Attorney General of Maryland.</p><br>
<p>* Joseph Pere Bell Wilmer (1812–1878), Episcopal bishop of Louisiana.</p><br>
<p>* John H. Winder (1800–1865), Confederate general during the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>Foxhall, also known as Foxhall Village, is a neighborhood in northwestern Washington, D.C., bordered by Reservoir Road on the north side, Foxhall Road on the west, Glover-Archbold Park on the east, and P Street NW on the south . The first homes were constructed along Reservoir Road and Greenwich Park Way in the mid-1920s. By the end of December, 1927, some 150 homes had been erected, and the community given the name of Foxhall Village.</p><br>
<p>Foxhall is mostly residential. Architecturally Foxhall is distinct, because the vast majority of the homes are a brick Tudor style. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007.</p><br>
<p>The Burns Club of Atlanta, officially organized in 1896, is a private social club and literary and cultural society commemorating the works and spirit of the 18th century national poet of Scotland, Robert Burns. In addition to holding monthly meetings, the club has held a Burns supper celebration on the anniversary of Burns birthday every year since 1898. Club events are held in the Atlanta Burns Cottage, a 1911 replica of poet Robert Burns birthplace in Alloway, Ayrshire, Scotland. The Cottage has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places as Burns Cottage since 1983.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Burns Club of Atlanta is fifty-third in seniority among several hundred organizations recognized by the Scottish-based World Burns Federation. Officially organized on January 25, 1896, the centennial year of Robert Burns’ birth, the Burns Club of Atlanta is quite possibly the citys oldest surviving cultural and literary society. As early as the 1870s, Burns admirers in Atlanta had been meeting in private homes and hotels to celebrate the birthday of the Scottish poet. Shortly after the clubs formation, plans were made to construct for a clubhouse an exact replica of Robert Burns&#39; birthplace in Alloway, Ayrshire, Scotland. Situated in the East Atlanta neighborhood of Ormewood Park, construction for the Atlanta Burns Cottage was completed in 1911.</p><br>
<p>The moving spirit behind the club&#39;s founding was Joseph Jacobs, the Atlanta pharmacist and drugstore owner at whose suggestion Coca-Cola was first carbonated. He served the very first Coca-Cola beverage from his fountain in the Five Points neighborhood of Atlanta. Of German Jewish parentage, Dr. Jacobs illustrates the universal appeal of Robert Burns’ poetry.</p><br>
<h2>A tradition of socially diverse membership</h2><br>
<p>Since its organization, the club&#39;s membership has included governors, college presidents, farmers, teachers, clergymen, engineers, lawyers, doctors, artists, salesmen and tradesmen. Membership is limited by space in the cottage to 100 members. Following club tradition, membership is only open to males. However, non-member male and female guests are frequent and many and are welcome by invitation.</p><br>
<h2>Literature and fellowship</h2><br>
<p>Monthly meetings in the Atlanta Burns Cottage feature readings from Burns’ works and various lectures given by visiting scholars, authorities and members. Previous lecturers include Atlanta author Margaret Mitchell and Scottish entertainer and goodwill ambassador, Sir Henry Lauder. Monthly meetings are noted for relaxed companionship and spirited, yet informal, discussion. Every meeting concludes with the traditional Scottish farewell observance of “circling up” and singing “Auld Lang Syne.”</p><br>
<h2>The Atlanta Burns Cottage</h2><br>
<p>The Burns Club of Atlanta retains the honor of having as their clubhouse the only reproduction in the world of Robert Burns&#39; birth home.</p><br>
<p>After the turn of the 20th century, the club began an effort to obtain land and erect a cottage to be used as a clubhouse. In 1907, the club purchased 15 acre in what is now the Ormewood Park neighborhood of Atlanta, at the end of the trolley line on “Dogwood Hill” across from the Confederate Veterans Home on Confederate Avenue (now the site of the Georgia Highway Patrol headquarters).</p><br>
<p>Atlanta architect and member, Thomas H. Morgan, obtained the exact measurements of the original Burns cottage in Alloway, Scotland, and prepared plans for the Atlanta replica. Construction of the building was supervised by Robert McWhirter, a member of the club and a skilled stonemason, and was finished in 1911 using quarried granite from nearby Stone Mountain instead of the traditional mortar and rubble construction found in Burns’ birth home.</p><br>
<p>The originally thatched, but now-shingled, roof has shallow eaves and gables that connect directly to the chimneys. The three fireplaces in the cottage are constructed of random stones with mortar joints raised and rounded. The fireplace in the center of the cottage features an inset stone plaque in memory of Burns. Of the three doors on the front of the cottage, only one is used. The cottages uncommonly small windows reflect one particular Scottish practice of taxation in which homeowners were taxed according to the dimensions of their homes window openings.</p><br>
<p>The low, one-story building is generally rectangular, but is slightly curved, as was the original, which accommodated the curve of the road it was built along. The interior of the house is also a close replica of the Scottish cottage, and was divided into the traditional three areas: butt, ben and byre.</p><br>
<p>The cottage is managed by a caretaker who lives on the grounds.</p><br>
<h2>Scottish vernacular architecture: butt, ben and byre</h2><br>
<p>One now enters the Atlanta Burns Cottage through the byre, the Scots word for the portion of the cottage where, in Burn&#39;s original birthplace, animals and farm stuff were housed. Members of the club now use this room for their monthly meetings. While the club is primarily a literary society, many of the members share Burns’ Scottish heritage and display their clan tartan banners, along with several plaques and bas-relief panels situated on plastered walls.</p><br>
<p>To the immediate left is the ben, the innermost room of the family dwelling. Originally, there was no door between the living quarters and the byre. The ben represents the combined living room and dormitory for the large Burns family. In the Atlanta Burns Cottage it functions as additional space for club events.</p><br>
<p>To the far left is found the butt, or the outer room used as kitchen, dining room and parent&#39;s bedroom. The fireplace/stove, cabinet, and plate rack found within this room faithfully portray the original cottage furnishings. The room also features a box-bed that recreates the bed in which Robert Burns was born. The room is now used as an office and space for directors’ meetings. Almost a century of Atlanta Burns Club presidents’ portraits hang on the walls.</p><br>
<h2>Other architectural additions and alterations</h2><br>
<p>The only remaining outbuilding is a one-story stone caretaker&#39;s house, originally a log cabin. It was redesigned in 1969 to bear a closer resemblance to the cottage. The grounds once included a dance pavilion, barbecue pit, a tennis court and putting green for club use. Changes to Burns Cottage include the rear additions of a kitchen, interior porch, restrooms and an external wooden platform used for social events. Other alterations include the replacement of stone-flagged floors with finished concrete, an additional fireplace in the byre and the sealing up of several small windows.</p><br>
<p>The Racquet and Tennis Club, familiarly known as the R&T, is a private social and athletic club at 370 Park Avenue, between East 52nd and 53rd Streets in Midtown Manhattan, New York City.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Racquet Court Club opened in 1876 at 55 West 26th Street. It had two racquets courts, an indoor running track and two bowling alleys, but it did not have a tennis court. In 1890, it merged into the newly incorporated Racquet and Tennis Club, which planned to build a tennis court, moving the following year to a second, larger club house at 27 West 43rd Street (1891). This second club house had two racquets courts, one fives court and one court tennis court. The Club moved to its third, and current, home in 1918.</p><br>
<h2>Building</h2><br>
<p>The R&Ts current clubhouse was designed by William Symmes Richardson, a partner at McKim, Mead, and White. The facility was built on a parcel offered for lease by a member of the club, Robert Goelet. Richardson, who had primary design responsibility for Pennsylvania Station and the Hotel Pennsylvania, proposed an integrated Italian Renaissance style and his firms proposal was presented to the membership for approval in April 1916. In addition to offering its members more spacious amenities, the move to Park Avenue afforded more consistent natural light for the skylit playing courts, as well a generally more desirable location. Construction began on December 20, 1916 and was completed on September 7, 1918. The builder was Mark Edlitz, and the estimated cost was $500,000. Board of Directors at this time included financier Ogden Mills and sportsman Harry Payne Whitney.</p><br>
<p>The resulting building is about 200 feet by 100 feet (30 m x 60 m) and five stories tall. The exterior is stone and brick over a structural steel frame. According to the original plans, the interior contained three dining rooms, a billiard room, library, lounge, gymnasium, swimming pool, five squash courts, two court tennis courts, and two racquets courts. Today, there are four singles squash courts, one hardball squash doubles court, one racquets court and two court tennis courts. The club&#39;s court facilities are considered among the finest in the world.</p><br>
<p>The structure is representative of the ornate private clubs constructed in New York City during the early 20th century. McKim, Mead and White had previously designed the Harvard Club of New York City, the Century Association and the University Club of New York. It performs an important architectural role on Park Avenue as a foil to the Seagram Building, directly across the avenue, and the Lever House, across 53rd Street, and other corporate structures in the glass-clad vocabulary of International Modernism.</p><br>
<p>The building was designated a New York City Landmark in 1979 and on July 21, 1983, the building was listed in the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The club sold its air rights on Park Avenue to the developer of the Park Avenue Plaza skyscraper in 1978. The glass-clad skyscraper rises in the middle of the block, immediately behind the club.</p><br>
<h2>Squash</h2><br>
<p>Club members and professionals are active in squash and the R & T has hosted many national and international competitions. Members who have been USA Squash National Champions include Palmer Dixon, Lawrence Pool, Beekman Pool, Stephen Vehslage, Peter Briggs, Ralph Howe, John Reese, Jonathan Foster, Morris Clothier, Addison West, Whitten Morris, Michael Ferreira, Dylan Patterson, William Hartigan and Kyle Martino. Former Head Squash Professional Ben Gould was World Squash Doubles Champion in 2009 (with Paul Price), 2011 (with Damien Mudge) and 2013 (with Damien Mudge). Club members who have been elected into the Squash Hall of Fame include William "Treddy" Ketcham, Ralph Howe and Peter Briggs.</p><br>
<p>The first collegiate squash team match was played at the Racquet and Tennis Club on February 17, 1923. Harvard defeated Yale 4 matches to 1.</p><br>
<h2>Court Tennis and Racquets</h2><br>
<p>Club members and professionals have been national and world champions in both court tennis and racquets. The most famous was Pierre Etchebaster, who was Court Tennis World Champion from 1928 to 1954. Other R & T Court Tennis World Champions include James Dear (1955-1957), Albert "Jack" Johnson (1957-1959), Northrup Knox (1959-1969), Pete Bostwick (1969-1972), Jimmy Bostwick (1972-1976) and Wayne Davies (1987-1994). R & T members who have won multiple USA Amateur Court Tennis Championships include James Van Alen, Ogden Phipps, Alastair Martin, Gene Scott and Morris Clothier. Club member Willie Surtees and Club professionals Neil Smith and James Dear were World Racquets Champions. Tim Chisholm, Head Professional from 1999 to 2004, was World Court Tennis Doubles Champion in 2001 (with Julian Snow). James Stout, who has been a professional at the Club since 2006, was World Racquets Champion from 2008 to 2019 and is currently Head Racquets and Squash Professional.</p><br>
<h2>Backgammon</h2><br>
<p>The Racquet and Tennis Club played an important role in the history of backgammon: In 1931 Wheaton Vaughan, who was then chairman of the clubs Card and Backgammon Committee, invited representatives of selected New York City clubs and elsewhere and led the process to formulate and produce the Laws of Backgammon. This set of rules is the basis of the rules according to which backgammon is played today and was published by Charles Scribners Sons. Backgammon remains a vibrant game in the Club.</p><br>
<h2>Membership</h2><br>
<p>Like other single gender Manhattan clubs including the Colony (women-only), the Cosmopolitan (women-only), and the Knickerbocker (men-only), the R & T has maintained its men-only membership policy. Women are welcome at the Club for social and athletic events.</p><br>
<p>Plum Orchard {{coord|30.855933|-81.465238|type:landmark_region:US|display=title}} is an estate located in the middle of the western shore of Cumberland Island, Georgia, USA. The estate and surrounding area are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Designed by Peabody and Stearns for George Lauder Carnegie, a son of Thomas M. Carnegie and named after his uncle, Scottish industrialist George Lauder, it was formally dedicated on October 6, 1898. Peabody and Stearns also designed various additions to the mansion in the several following years, probably in 1906.</p><br>
<p>After George Lauder Carnegie died, his widow, Margaret Copley Thaw, remarried and moved to Lake Naivasha, Kenya. Most of the original furnishings were sold, and furniture from Dungeness was brought in to furnish the house. The house was then occupied by the Johnston family, from Nancy Trovillo Carnegie Heaver/Johnston&#39;s branch of the family.</p><br>
<p>The estate is now part of Cumberland Island National Seashore.</p><br>
<p>The mansion also includes a rare squash tennis court.</p><br>
<p>Lithia Park is the largest and most central park of Ashland, Oregon, United States. It consists of 93 acre of forested canyonland around Ashland Creek, stretching from the downtown plaza up toward its headwaters near Mount Ashland. Its name originates from lithium oxide  or "lithia," which is found in the stream water pumped to the park.</p><br>
<p>The park has two large greens, a bandshell for public musical performances, two duck ponds, a large playground, tennis courts, community buildings and, in winter, an ice skating rink. It also offers picnic areas and miles of hiking trails.</p><br>
<p>The park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. It features a Japanese garden.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The area which now comprises the entrance to Lithia Park was the site of Abel Helman and Eber Emery&#39;s flour mill, the first building in what is now the city of Ashland&mdash;established in 1852. By the time the town (then called Ashland Mills) had grown up around the area, the old mill had become an eyesore, dirty with livestock and the mill all but abandoned.</p><br>
<p>The Chautauqua movement was very influential in Ashland, and many of the members of the Ladies Chautauqua Club formed the Women&#39;s Civic Improvement Club. Central to the focus of the club was the establishment of a park in Ashland. In 1908, after lobbying the city council, an amendment to the city charter was made establishing an elected park commission and setting aside all city-owned property bordering Ashland Creek for use as a park.</p><br>
<p>In 1907 a lithia water spring was discovered at Emigrant Creek several miles to the east. Upon analysis, the water was shown to have the second-highest concentration of (presumably beneficial) lithium in any natural spring (the highest being in the famous springs of Saratoga, New York). Bert Greer, a journalist, moved to Ashland in 1911 and purchased the Ashland Tidings newspaper. He agitated for the idea of establishing a mineral water resort at Ashland, and campaigned for a bond issue to fund mineral springs-related improvements to the park.</p><br>
<p>In 1914, the bond issue was passed, and the park commission engaged John McLaren, landscape architect of San Francisco&#39;s Golden Gate Park, to design improvements to the park. Additionally, Smith, Emery and Company were retained to do the necessary plumbing to pipe the "healthful" mineral waters into the park. During the ensuing period, much controversy arose over the spending of money and control of the park. The bond issue had placed authority in the hands of the Mineral Springs Commission (headed by Greer), and in 1916 Ashlanders voted to return control of the (now-named) Lithia Springs Park to the park commission.</p><br>
<p>During this period, in 1915, the park commission opened a free auto camp along the margins of the park, which remained popular, with several rounds of improvements to campsites and facilities, until closed.</p><br>
<p>Interest in a mineral springs resort faded (though was briefly revived in the 1920s). Plantings by the WPA under Chet Corry (appointed superintendent in 1937) improved the landscaping of the park entrance. Corry also implemented a new approach, bringing many native plants and landscaping features into the park.</p><br>
<p>During the next several years, the park commission expanded to establish many parks in Ashland; however, Lithia Park itself fell into disrepair. Financial and maintenance strains caused many features of the park to decay, and vandals destroyed several landmarks.</p><br>
<p>In 1974, a huge blow was dealt to the park when a devastating flood scoured much of the parkland. Ashlanders again voted for additional funding for the park, which went into repairing the storm damage as well as improvements and repairs. A subsequent flood, in early 1997, again damaged much of the park and the downtown Ashland Plaza area. Significant structural work on Ashland Creek and the parks bridges in the years following this flood helped to prevent further disaster and turned Lithia Park it into the centerpiece of the town that it is today.</p><br>
<p>The park was named by the American Planning Association as one of 10 Great Public Spaces in America in 2014.</p><br>
<p>The Paramount Arts Center is a historic theater located in Ashland, Kentucky, in the United States. Listed as the Paramount Theatre on the National Register of Historic Places, this theater is an important part of theater in Kentucky.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Paramount Arts Center, at that time known as the Paramount Theater, was one of the first transitional theatres built for "talking pictures" and was to be a model theatre for others around the country to showcase films produced by Paramount Pictures. The Great Depression, however, soon changed the course of events for the theater, as Paramount had decided to do away with the project altogether. The plans were picked up by an Ashland-based company with Paramount craftsmen providing the interior furnishings - and the building was then leased to Paramount Publix Corporation. Because of the change in plans, the original design by Rapp and Rapp was scaled back by as large.</p><br>
<p>In 2001, Mike Myers of Ashland reported that the original general contractor was Wade Gates of Ashland. Gates&#39;s secretary, Marie Duncan, provided this information.</p><br>
<p>The Paramount first opened on September 5, 1931, and closed forty years later in 1971. In 1972, the Greater Ashland Foundation (Foundation for the Tri-State Community), was created. Under the leadership of Ashland Oil Inc. Foundation President Paul G. Blazer Jr. (son of Ashland Oil & Refining Company founder Paul G. Blazer) one half of the corpus of the terminating Stuart M. Blazer Foundation was gifted and used for the Greater Ashland Foundation&#39;s purchase of the Paramount Theatre and establishing it as a performing arts center. It opened that same year under the new name "Paramount Arts Center". The theater has undergone several renovations since 1972, most recently in 2002 when a new stagehouse was added and new dressing rooms, rehearsal space and banquet facility were added in a nearby building that was purchased in 1998. In addition, this renovated space was connected to the main building.</p><br>
<p>The theater now operates as a non-profit organization, showing symphonies, Broadway plays, ballets and other productions. In addition, in 1992 the music video for the song "Achy Breaky Heart" by Billy Ray Cyrus was filmed here.</p><br>
<h2>2006 water damage</h2><br>
<p>The Paramount Arts Center suffered major water damage in November 2006. It occurred when a beauty pageant contestant hung a dress from a water sprinkler while using a steamer to remove wrinkles. Heat from the steam set off the sprinkler system. Water poured from the second floor causing close to $30,000 US dollars in damage to the building.</p><br>
<h2>Haunting</h2><br>
<p>It is said that during early renovation work on the Paramount Theatre, a death occurred there and the man&#39;s ghost has since haunted the Paramount. According to the story, in the early 1940s, four construction workers from Boyd Theater Company in Cincinnati, Ohio were working on a project inside the auditorium. It is reported that all of them had gone to lunch except one man, named Joe. When the other three returned, they are said to have found Joe hanging from the curtain rigging, dead. Allegedly, since that time, sounds have been heard, things have gone missing, cold drafts have been felt, and the image of a man has been seen to appear on occasion. Despite this, most versions of the story refer to Joe as a "good ghost"—one who seems to look out for the benefit of the theatre and its occupants.</p><br>
<p>When Billy Ray Cyrus was at the Paramount filming his video for "Achy Breaky Heart," he was told about the legend of Paramount Joe. It is customary to get 8 x 10 photographs signed by each performer that appears at the Paramount and then hang the photo on the Wall of Fame in the box office. Billy Ray autographed large color posters to each of the female employees working here at the time - and one with a personal inscription to Paramount Joe, whom he now had a fondness for. Each woman put her poster near her desk and Joes was hung in the box office, near all the other performers. As time passed and the walls in the box office became too full of 8x10s signed by other performers, the executive director felt that some of the pictures and posters needed to come down. Nobody wanted to take their personally autographed picture of Billy Ray down so they took down the one he had signed to Paramount Joe. The next day, the story has it that every 8x10 and poster that had been hanging neatly on the walls the night before were now lined strewn on the floor, many of their glass frames shattered. Paramount Joes poster still hangs in the Paramount, in part of The Marquee Room, which is now the site of Paramount Joes Rising Star Café.</p><br>
<p>In 2004, marketing director Tyson Compton was giving a tour to some high school students. As he was relating the Paramount Joe story, he realized that he was always talking about Joe, and not to him. So as he spoke to the students, he stopped and called out, "Joe, are you here? Is it okay that I tell your story?" While he swears that he then heard a seat squeak, that is not the most chilling part of this story. Compton relates how he received a call the next day from a psychic who lived in the area. She asked him if someone in his family or a close friend had recently died because she had gotten a message from "the other side." She said, "I&#39;m supposed to tell you that Joe said he is here."</p><br>
<h2>The Paramount Players</h2><br>
<p>The Paramount Players are a group of local actors that come together and audition for the various straight plays and musicals that are produced under the direction of Paramount Arts Center&#39;s Director of Education.</p><br>
<p>The Paramount Players have won several awards including Kentucky Theatre Association Outstanding Production for RENT and Cabaret, IMEA Award for Best Musical for CATS and RENT, and Best Director And Best Choreography.</p><br>
<p>The Dayton Art Institute  is a museum of fine arts in Dayton, Ohio, United States. The Dayton Art Institute has been rated one of the top 10 best art museums in the United States for children. The museum also ranks in the top 3% of all art museums in North America in 3 of 4 factors. In 2007, the art institute saw 303,834 visitors.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Founded in a downtown mansion in 1919 as the Dayton Museum of Fine Arts, the museum moved to a newly designed Edward B. Green building in 1930. The DAI was modeled after the Casino in the gardens of the Villa Farnese at Caprarola, and the front hillside stairway after the Italian Renaissance garden stairs at the Villa d&#39;Este, near Rome, and Italy. The building was originally constructed with imported roof tiles from Italy, but after they began to crumble from the harsher Ohio winters they were replaced by Ludowici tiles in 1979. It is also visible from and easily accessible from I-75, which passes through the center of Dayton.</p><br>
<p>The museum was later renamed the Dayton Art Institute as an indication of the growing importance of its school in addition to the museum. The nearly 60,000 ft&sup2; building is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Museum information</h2><br>
<p>The museum&#39;s collection contains more than 20,000 objects spanning 5,000 years. In September, 2005, the Museum became one of eleven galleries in the US to host The Quest for Immortality: Treasures of Ancient Egypt, the largest collection of ancient artifacts ever to travel outside Egypt.</p><br>
<p>The art museum is an Italian Renaissance–style building, which sits atop a hill overlooking downtown Dayton. The institutes highlights are the museums Asian, 17th-century Baroque, 18th- and 19th-century American, and contemporary art collections. In addition to its collections, the museum frequently features other exhibitions.</p><br>
<h2>Notable works</h2><br>
<p>Some of the most notable works held by the institute are:</p><br>
<p>The Song of the Nightingale by William-Adolphe Bouguereau</p><br>
<p>Purple Leaves by Georgia O&#39;Keeffe</p><br>
<p>Cantata by Norman Lewis</p><br>
<p>Untitled by Joan Mitchell</p><br>
<p>Sea Change by Helen Frankenthaler</p><br>
<p>Untitled by Louise Nevelson</p><br>
<p>Louise Nevelson by Alison Van Pelt</p><br>
<p>Lost and Found by Alison Saar</p><br>
<p>Embroidery from Uzbekistan by Janet Fish</p><br>
<p>Sawdy by Edward Kienholz</p><br>
<p>Study Heads of an Old Man by Peter Paul Rubens</p><br>
<p>High Noon by Edward Hopper</p><br>
<p>Aurora Red Ikebana with Bright Yellow Stems by Dale Chihuly</p><br>
<p>After the Bath by Edgar Degas</p><br>
<p>Stacks in Celebration by Charles Sheeler</p><br>
<p>Scene in Yosemite Valley by Albert Bierstadt</p><br>
<p>Allegory of the Four Seasons by Bartolomeo Manfredi</p><br>
<p>Water Lilies by Claude Monet</p><br>
<p>American Indian Series (Russell Means) by Andy Warhol</p><br>
<p>Homage to Painting by Roy Lichtenstein</p><br>
<p>Shimmering Madness by Sandy Skoglund</p><br>
<p>Mount Olivet Cemetery is a 206 acre cemetery located in Nashville, Tennessee. It is located approximately two miles East of downtown Nashville, and adjacent to the Catholic Calvary Cemetery. It is open to the public during daylight hours.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antebellum era</h3><br>
<p>The Mount Olivet Cemetery was established by Adrian Van Sinderen Lindsley and John Buddeke in 1856. It was modelled after the Mount Auburn Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>The Southern aristocracy was buried in a separate section from common folks. These included planters as well as former governors of Tennessee, USA Senators, and USA Congressional Representatives. In the antebellum era, slaves were often buried near their owners.</p><br>
<p>Visitors to Nashville were buried alongside paupers.</p><br>
<h3>Confederate circle</h3><br>
<p>After the American Civil War, "the Ladies Memorial Society of Nashville with surviving Confederate veterans such as William B. Bate, Daniel Carter, General Benjamin Cheatham, and Thomas Harding purchased 26,588 square feet in the center of Mount Olivet and established Confederate Circle" for the interment of Confederate dead. It was used for the interment of Confederate soldiers who had died on nearby battlegrounds and as a memorial to their sacrifice. Women organized such memorial associations and raised money for interment of Confederate soldiers in major cities across the South and areas where there were concentrations of bodies. The memorial association arranged for burials of about 1,500 soldiers at Confederate Circle. They also built an obelisk.</p><br>
<h3>World War I and beyond</h3><br>
<p>A plaque in memory of Nashvillians who died in World War I was dedicated by General Hugh Mott in 1924.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery was purchased by Stewart Enterprises in 1994.</p><br>
<p>On January 25, 2015, the chapel, by then listed on the National Register of Historic Places, burned.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>Adelicia Acklen, plantation and slave owner.</p><br>
<p>Emma Louise Ashford, American organist, composer, and music editor</p><br>
<p>Oswald Avery, acclaimed scientist whose experiments proved that DNA is the substance that carried genes.</p><br>
<p>John Meredith Bass, Mayor of Nashville from 1833–34, and in 1869.</p><br>
<p>William B. Bate, Governor of Tennessee (1883–87), American Civil War general.</p><br>
<p>Fannie Battle, Confederate spy and social reformer</p><br>
<p>John Bell, United States Senator and presidential candidate</p><br>
<p>Aaron V. Brown, Governor of Tennessee (1845–47), United States Postmaster General from 1857–59</p><br>
<p>James Stephens Brown, Mayor of Nashville from 1908–09</p><br>
<p>Lytle Brown, major general in the USA Army</p><br>
<p>George P. Buell, Union Army general</p><br>
<p>Joseph Wellington Byrns, United States Congressman and Speaker of the House</p><br>
<p>John Catron, USA Supreme Court Justice.</p><br>
<p>Benjamin F. ("Frank") Cheatham, Confederate general during the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>Mark R. Cockrill (1788–1872), cattleman, planter, and "Wool King of the World".</p><br>
<p>Clarence Kelley Colley (1869–1956), architect.</p><br>
<p>Washington Bogart Cooper (1802–1888), painter.</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth Litchfield Cunnyngham (1831–1911), missionary and church worker</p><br>
<p>George A. Dickel (1818–1894), liquor dealer and wholesaler</p><br>
<p>Anne Dallas Dudley (1876–1955), women&#39;s suffrage activist.</p><br>
<p>Guilford Dudley, USA ambassador to Denmark under the Nixon and Ford presidential administrations.</p><br>
<p>Winfield Dunn (1927-2024), 43rd governor of tennessee and businessman</p><br>
<p>George Dury (18171894), portrait painter</p><br>
<p>Edward H. East (1830–1904), Tennessee Secretary of State, briefly served as the state&#39;s "acting governor" in 1865</p><br>
<p>Joseph Thorpe Elliston (1779–1856), silversmith, owner of the Burlington plantation, fourth mayor of Nashville, 1814–17</p><br>
<p>Cornelia Keeble Ewing (1898–1973), American clubwoman</p><br>
<p>Sarah Polk Fall (1847–1924) Nashville socialite and unofficially adopted daughter of former first Lady Sarah Polk</p><br>
<p>Jesse Babcock Ferguson, onetime minister of the Nashville Church of Christ, later associated with Spiritualism and Universalism</p><br>
<p>Thomas Frist, co-founder of Hospital Corporation of America and father of the former majority leader of the USA Senate, Bill Frist</p><br>
<p>Francis Furman (1816–1899), Nashville businessman during the Reconstruction era. His tomb, designed by sculptor Johannes Gelert (1852–1923), is the largest one in Mount Olivet Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Sidney Clarence Garrison (1885–1945), second President of Peabody College (now part of Vanderbilt University), 1938–45</p><br>
<p>Meredith Poindexter Gentry, United States Congressman</p><br>
<p>Carl Giers, early photographer</p><br>
<p>Alvan Cullem Gillem, Civil War Union general and post-bellum Indian fighter</p><br>
<p>Caroline Meriwether Goodlett, co-founder of the United Daughters of the Confederacy</p><br>
<p>Vern Gosdin 1934–2009 country music legend</p><br>
<p>William Crane Gray, (1835–1919), First Episcopal Bishop of the Missionary Jurisdiction of Southern Florida</p><br>
<p>Felix Grundy (1775–1840), USA Senator from Tennessee and 13th Attorney General of the United States.</p><br>
<p>George Blackmore Guild (1834–1917), Mayor of Nashville 1891–95.</p><br>
<p>Robert Kennon Hargrove (1829–1905), a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South</p><br>
<p>Henry C. Hibbs (1882–1949), architect.</p><br>
<p>E. Bronson Ingram, founder of Ingram Industries Inc., parent company of Ingram Barge Company; Ingram Book Company, the nation&#39;s largest book distributor; Ingram Micro; and other major companies</p><br>
<p>Howell Edmunds Jackson, United States Senator and Supreme Court Justice</p><br>
<p>William Hicks Jackson, Confederate general during the American Civil War</p><br>
<p>Thomas A. Kercheval, Tennessee State Senator and Mayor of Nashville</p><br>
<p>Eugene C. Lewis, engineer, chairman of the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis, civic leader.</p><br>
<p>David Lipscomb, founder of Nashville Bible School (now Lipscomb University).</p><br>
<p>William Litterer (1834–1917), Mayor of Nashville, 1890–91.</p><br>
<p>George Maney, Confederate Civil War general and USA Ambassador to Chile, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay</p><br>
<p>Jack C. Massey, co-founder of Hospital Corporation of America and owner of Kentucky Fried Chicken.</p><br>
<p>Hill McAlister, Governor of Tennessee from 1933–37</p><br>
<p>Randal William McGavock (1826–1863), Mayor of Nashville, 1858–59 and Confederate Lt. Colonel who was killed in the Battle of Raymond.</p><br>
<p>Eliza Jane McKissack (1828–1900), founding head of music in 1890 to the forerunner of the University of North Texas College of Music</p><br>
<p>Benton McMillin, Governor of Tennessee (1899–1903)</p><br>
<p>Kindred Jenkins Morris (1819–1884), Mayor of Nashville, 1869–71.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Owen Morris (1845–1924), Mayor of Nashville, 1906–08.</p><br>
<p>John W. Morton, Confederate veteran, founder of the Nashville chapter of the Ku Klux Klan, Tennessee Secretary of State, 1901–09.</p><br>
<p>William Nichol (1800–1878), Mayor of Nashville, 1835–37.</p><br>
<p>John Overton, friend of Andrew Jackson and one of the founders of Memphis, Tennessee.</p><br>
<p>Andrew Price (politician) (1854–1909), Louisiana Congressman</p><br>
<p>Bruce Ryburn Payne (1874–1937), founding president of Peabody College (now part of Vanderbilt University), 1911–37.</p><br>
<p>Colonel Buckner H. Payne (1799–1889), clergyman, publisher, merchant and racist pamphleteer.</p><br>
<p>Fountain E. Pitts (1808–1874), Methodist minister, Confederate chaplain and colonel, first pastor of the West End United Methodist Church in Nashville.</p><br>
<p>James E. Rains, American Civil War general killed in the 1862 Battle of Murfreesboro</p><br>
<p>Oliver P. Rood, American Civil War soldier, Medal of Honor recipient</p><br>
<p>Fred Rose, music publishing executive</p><br>
<p>Thomas "Tom" Ryman (1841–1904) Nashville riverboat captain and founder of the Ryman Auditorium</p><br>
<p>William Percy Sharpe (1871–1942), Mayor of Nashville, 1922–24</p><br>
<p>John Hugh Smith (1819–1870), Mayor of Nashville three times during the 19th century</p><br>
<p>Donald W. Southgate (1887–1953), architect</p><br>
<p>Edward Bushrod Stahlman (1843–1930), German-born railroad executive, publisher of the Nashville Banner and builder of The Stahlman.</p><br>
<p>Ernest Stoneman (1893-1968), country music performer</p><br>
<p>Roni Stoneman (1939-2024), American Musician</p><br>
<p>Wilbur Fisk Tillett (1854–1936), Methodist clergyman and educator; dean of Vanderbilt&#39;s theology school</p><br>
<p>Anthony Wayne Van Leer (1783–1864), ironmaster</p><br>
<p>George D. Waller (1883–1969), architect.</p><br>
<p>David K. Wilson (1919–2007), businessman and philanthropist; major donor to Vanderbilt University and the Republican Party</p><br>
<p>Del Wood (1920–1989), country musician, member of the Grand Ole Opry</p><br>
<p>St. Catherines Island is a sea island on the coast of the USA state of Georgia, 42 miles  south of Savannah in Liberty County. The island, located between St. Catherine&#39;s Sound and Sapelo Sound, is ten miles  long and from one to three miles  wide. It covers approximately 22,265 acres, with about half of the acreage being salt marsh, while the remaining acreage is wooded. There are fine beaches on the northeast and south sides. The island is owned by the Saint Catherines Island Foundation and is not open to the public, apart from the beach below the mean high water line.</p><br>
<h2>Physical geography</h2><br>
<p>Although often called a barrier island, St. Catherines Island is one of the sea islands found along the Atlantic coast of the southeastern United States between the mouth of the Santee River in South Carolina and the mouth of the St. Johns River in northeastern Florida. While barrier islands typically are long ridges of sand constantly shifting under the influence of sea level, sand supply, wave energy, and storms, the sea islands have a more complex structure, including an older, Pleistocene age component facing the mainland, and a newer, Holocene age component on the seaward side. The older portions of the sea islands were islands when sea levels were high during the Pleistocene, and then became ridges on the mainland as sea levels fell during the Wisconsin glaciation. With the return of high sea levels a few thousand years ago, the ridges once again became islands and new barrier beaches accumulated on the seaward side of the old islands to form the current sea islands. As sea levels approached current levels, extensive marshes formed to the west of the islands some time between 3700 and 2100 BC.</p><br>
<p>The sea level rise among the sea islands was not smooth. The rise was rapid until about 7,000 years BP. It continued to rise more slowly, reaching about three m below present sea level around 5,300 BP. A two m rise in sea level occurred between then and 4,300 years BP. This was followed by a rapid drop in sea level of two m in the next 700 years. In the last 3,600 years the sea has risen slowly to its present level.</p><br>
<p>Sanger and Thomas suggest that a smaller island on the seaward side of St. Catherines existed for a while, protecting a tidal marsh on the eastern side of St. Catherines, of which a remnant, the McQueen marsh, still exists. The Pleistocene core of the island is surrounded by scarps. A central depression runs down the long axis of the Pleistocene core. Holocene deposits are located primarily on the east side and to the south of the Pleistocene core. Salt marshes largely fill the space between the island and the mainland. The Pleistocene portion of the island was originally covered by a maritime forest, which produces an abundant mast (primarily acorns and other tree nuts). Both resource areas would support hunter-gatherers. There are many artesian springs on the Pleistocene core of the island, and the soils have supported Maize agriculture.</p><br>
<h2>Shell rings</h2><br>
<p>Two Late Archaic period shell rings, the St. Catherines Shell Ring (previously known as the Long Field Crescent) and the McQueen Shell Ring, are located on St. Catherines Island. The St. Catherines Shell Ring is on the west side of the island, while the McQueen Shell Ring is on the east side, 2.3 km away. Both rings are on scarp margins of the Pleistocene core of the island. They are in the maritime forest, next to freshwater creeks, and both have easy access to saltwater creeks. The rings were constructed concurrently and completed around 2000 BC, with work on the McQueen ring possibly lasting about 50 years longer than on the St. Catherines ring. The rings are almost identical in structure. However, there are significant differences in the artifacts associated with the two rings.</p><br>
<h3>St. Catherines Shell Ring</h3><br>
<p>The Long Field Crescent (9LI231) was identified as a shell ring in 1979 and renamed the St. Catherines Shell Ring in 2006. The unmodified part of the ring is crescent-shaped, and up to 1.5 m high. St. Simons pottery sherds were found in the shell ring. Radio-carbon testing of material from the ring yielded median dates of 4,370 and 3,860 years Before Present (BP). The ring was used for many years, perhaps year-round. It was one of the features that contributed to St. Catherines Island being designated a National Historic Landmark. Excavations of the ring have found that it was originally round, about 70 m in diameter. The southern two-thirds of the ring was subject to extensive plowing in the first half of the 19th century, obscuring its surface appearance. The ring is only 25 cm high where it has been plowed. A ditch that marked the boundary of the Long Field separates the plowed and undisturbed portions of the ring.</p><br>
<p>The St. Catherines shell ring appears to have been constructed in two stages. A ring of shallow shell filled pits were found under the shell ring, but not in the central plaza or in the area surrounding the ring. Some of the pits showed evidence of burning. Many circular pits, up to more than one metre across, with straight sides and flat bottoms were found in the central plaza. The pits were filled with dark earth with little to no charcoal and no shells. Sanger and Thomas think the most likely origin of the holes was as postholes. Most of the. dates from the pits under the shell ring lie in the range of 2540 to 2290 BC. The ring itself yielded radiocarbon dates in the range of 2260 to 1920 BC. Sanger and Thomas believe that the ring was constructed within a couple of centuries. Samples from the central plaza (charcoal and a hickory nut, as shells are absent) yielded a range from 2410 to 2210 BC.</p><br>
<p>Ceramic potsherds are common throughout the St. Catherines ring. More than 90 percent of the sherds are fiber-tempered ceramics classified as St. Simons. The remaining sherds of later types were found in upper layers or disturbed areas. Less than one percent of the St. Simons ceramics in the St. Caterines ring were decorated, primarily with simple marks. While stone tools are generally rare at archaeological sites in the sea islands and the adjacent coast, they are fairly common at the St. Catherines ring. Excavators have found 18 projectile points and a drill, as well as very small pieces interpreted as debris from tool reduction or reshaping. The majority of the points are identified as Savannah Stemmed. Most are also made from chert, likely from the Savannah River. More than 3,000 baked clay objects (distinct from pottery) have been found in the St. Catherines ring, as well as bone pins, shell tools, shell beads, and pearls.</p><br>
<h3>McQueen Shell Ring</h3><br>
<p>The McQueen Shell Ring (9LI648) was discovered in 2006. It is ring-shaped, almost exactly round, 70 m in diameter, with a 30 to 40 m diameter central plaza that is free of shell, and is 30 cm to one meter high. Several pits similar to those found in the St. Catherine ring were found in the central plaza of the McQueen ring. A burial pit containing human and non-human bone fragments was also found in the central plaza. Radio-carbon testing of shells in the ring yielded dates of 4270–3680 BP, while human bone fragments from the burial pit yielded dates of 4100–3980 BP. The dating of shells from one location on the ring indicates that the oldest shells, 2560 to 2190 BC, are at the top of the ring, and the youngest, 2120 to 1700 BC, are on the bottom. On the east side of the ring excavations revealed two layers of shell, separated by 3.5 cm of sand. Charcoal from the top of the upper layer was dated to 2280 to 1980 BC, while charcoal from the bottom of the upper layer was dated to 2200 to 1950 BC. A shell sample from the top of the lower layer was dated 2150 to 1870 BC. This apparent reversal of stratigraphic sequence has been found at other shell rings. A 3 m by 6 m mound of shells found buried in the central plaza was radiocarbon-dated to more than 2000 years after the ring was abandoned (AD 60–520 for the shells, and AD 1020–1190 for a piece of burnt wood on top of the shellheap).</p><br>
<p>As with the St. Catherines ring, ceramic potsherds are common throughout the McQueen ring, with more than 90 percent of the sherds being fiber-tempered St. Simons ware. Unlike with the St. Catherines ring, fourteen percent of ceramics in the McQueen ring were decorated with a variety of decorative marks. Stone tools have also been found at the McQueen ring, but a detailed analysis has not been published. In sharp contrast to the case at St. Catherines ring, only 15 baked clay objects have been found in the McQueen ring.</p><br>
<h3>Relative dating</h3><br>
<p>The two rings are very similar in size and construction. The dates for construction of the rings overlapped to a great extent. Construction of the St. Catherines ring began around 4800 BP, peaked in 4400 to 4200 BP, and ceased shortly after 3800 BP. Construction of the McQueen ring began around 4100 BP, peaked in 4200 to 3800 BP, and also ceased shortly after 3800 BP, although construction at the McQueen ring may have continued up to 50 years after it ceased at the St. Catherines ring.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological investigations indicate that the island has been inhabited for at least 5,000 years. David Hurst Thomas states that the initial inhabitants settled first in the most productive areas of the Pleistocene core of the island. The population steadily increased until well after arrival of Europeans in the 16th century. While the increased population required more intensive exploitation of the resources of the island and surrounding waters, which would be expected to lead to overexploitation, Thomas observes that the white-tailed deer population remained viable on the island, with venison remaining an important part of the islanders&#39; diet throughout. Fish and shellfish were also important components of their diet.</p><br>
<p>As of 2022, excavation of an approximately 4,000-year-old human grave site on St. Catherines Island is spearheaded by David Hurst Thomas and Matthew C. Sanger. Excavations at the grave site, which is surrounded by a large ring of seashells known as the McQueen shell ring, have uncovered copper objects closely corresponding to those found at hunter-gatherer sites in the Great Lakes region, suggesting that traders may have travelled all the way from the Midwest to St Catherines Island.</p><br>
<p>Thomas has directed systematic Spanish period mission excavations on St. Catherines Island for decades. These indicate that there were two stages of occupation (1587–1597, and 1604–ca. 1650) by Spanish missions on the island. They have revealed the remains of the churches, conventos (friars&#39; quarters), a kitchen, wells, the churchyard, and part of the Indian settlement attached to the mission. Kathleen Deagan writes, "The work has provided detailed information about early Franciscan mission architecture and building construction, organization of space, diet, material culture, and economic strategies." A cemetery (campo santo) was found inside the remains of the church of Santa Catalina de Guale, where at least 431 persons were buried beneath the floor. It contained an assortment of associated grave goods, including crosses, Franciscan medallions, small medals, Jesuit finger rings, a cast figurine of the infant Jesus, and other religious and utilitarian objects.</p><br>
<p>There was a Guale settlement on St. Catherines Island by 1576, and it was established as the northernmost permanent Spanish outpost on the Atlantic Coast in 1587. Spanish colonies were planted as far north as Chesapeake Bay, but none lasted more than a year or two. During the 17th century, the mission of Santa Catalina de Guale, located on the island from 1602 to 1680, was the center of the Guale missionary province of Spanish Florida. When English raiders from Charles Town, Carolina, attacked the mission in 1680, Captain Francisco de Fuentes rallied his Spanish soldiers and Guale musketeers to defend the mission, but they were overwhelmed by the English.</p><br>
<p>Mary Musgrove, or Coosaponakeesa, daughter of a Muscogee woman and an Indian trader of English descent, obtained a grant for St. Catherines Island from the Spanish crown in 1759. In 1766 the island was leased by Button Gwinnett, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. It was run as a plantation for nearly a century, until the Civil War ended. During the Civil War, the island was granted to the Freedmens Bureau by Shermans Special Field Orders No. 15. On the island, the agent Tunis Campbell, dubbed "the most feared man in Georgia", established a government with schools. He also established a militia that worked to keep white people off the island. In the autumn of 1865, after the United States Congress repealed Sherman&#39;s Orders, African-American Union soldiers were sent to evict Campbell from his island, as he would not fire upon other blacks. Subsequently, Jacob Waldburg, following his pardon issued by President Andrew Johnson on 29 August, 1865, reclaimed the island and plantation he owned prior to the civil war.</p><br>
<p>The 1893 Sea Islands Hurricane caused catastrophic destruction, sweeping seawater across the entire island. Only one person who remained on it during the storm survived, and all buildings were destroyed. In 1943, Edward John Noble bought the island, and used it to raise Angus cattle. They are habituated to humans and roam freely. St. Catherines Island was declared a National Historic Landmark and automatically placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969.</p><br>
<p>The Los Alamos Ranch House is a historic adobe house near Los Alamos in northern Santa Barbara County, California. The house, the centerpiece of Rancho Los Alamos, was built about 1840, and is one of the best-preserved examples of domestic architecture from California&#39;s Mexican period. The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Los Alamos Ranch House is located on the south side of California State Route 135, about 3 mi west of the town of Los Alamos. It is a single-story structure, built out of locally made adobe bricks. It is in a relatively unspoiled rural setting that has changed fairly little since the house was built about 1840. The house has thick walls, with mostly original window and door openings, and is covered by a gabled roof. Its interior features include a number of American adaptations, including wood plank flooring and ceilings, and paneled wooden doors.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Rancho Los Alamos originated as a Mexican land grant given in 1839 to José Antonio de la Guerra, the son of the Commandant José de la Guerra y Noriega of the Presidio of Santa Barbara. The grant of nearly 49,000 acre was one of a large number of such grants made by the Mexican government in the 1830s. The house was built by Chumash natives who lived on the rancho, trading their labor for goods and food. It was a common stopping point on what was then the main road between Santa Barbara and Monterey, now Route 135.</p><br>
<p>De la Guerra was able reconfirm his ownership of the land grant after California became a state, but it failed due to a decline in the price of beef, extended drought, and flooding. In 1876, Thomas Bell, John S. Bell, and James Shaw, purchased 14,000 acre of land, part from Rancho Los Alamos and part from the adjacent Rancho La Laguna, from which they then set aside the town site of Los Alamos. The area prospered agriculturally, suffering a decline in the 1930s when the railroad ended service to Los Alamos.</p><br>
<p>The ranch house now stands on a much reduced property, and is private property.</p><br>
<p>The Ahwahnee is a grand hotel in Yosemite National Park, California, on the floor of Yosemite Valley. It was built by the Yosemite Park and Curry Company and opened for business in 1927. The hotel is constructed of steel, stone, concrete, wood, and glass, and is a premier example of National Park Service rustic architecture. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987.</p><br>
<p>The Ahwahnee was temporarily renamed the Majestic Yosemite Hotel in 2016 due to a legal dispute between the USA government, which owns the property, and the outgoing concessionaire, Delaware North, which claimed rights to the trademarked name. The name was restored in 2019 upon settlement of the dispute.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>The Currys</h3><br>
<p>David and Jennie Curry were schoolteachers who arrived in Yosemite Valley in 1899. The Curry Company went on to dominate the politics of the park for decades, and David wrote the Secretary of the Interior, Franklin Lane, in an effort to extend the parks tourist season so as to expand his business. In the Currys opinion, national parks were for recreational use, and the couple marketed the park with attractions like the Firefall.</p><br>
<p>David Curry died in 1917 and left the management of Camp Curry to his widow Jennie, who was then known as "Mother Curry". She received help from her children, particularly her daughter Mary, and Mary&#39;s husband Donald Tresidder. The camp still exists today as Curry Village.</p><br>
<h3>Yosemite National Park Company</h3><br>
<p>In 1915, Stephen T. Mather convinced D. J. Desmond to convert an old army barracks into the Yosemite Lodge. Desmond also began a hotel at Glacier Point the following year, while buying out a number of businesses to improve D. J. Desmond Park Company&#39;s position in upcoming park leasing contracts. A congressional act permitted this efficient supervision of the park for the enjoyment of the public. However, prominent tourists were refusing to stay at the park due to the poor conditions of the facilities Under the direction of Mather, whose greatest desire was to build a luxury hotel in Yosemite, an attempt was made to build accommodations near Yosemite Falls but it failed due to a lack of funds.</p><br>
<h3>Yosemite Park and Curry Company</h3><br>
<p>In 1925, the Park Service, unhappy with the declining concessions situation within the parks, decided to grant a monopoly to single entities to run the hotel and food services in each park. In response, the Curry Company and The Yosemite National Park Company (successor to D. J. Desmond Park Company) were merged to create one larger concessions company, with Donald Tresidder from the Curry Company as the new head. As part of this reorganization, the newly formed Yosemite Park and Curry Company proposed a new luxury hotel. Given the Curry Companys enormous success in the park, it was hoped that their involvement would help realize Mathers hotel. What began as a simple campsite run by two Indiana schoolteachers ended up as the sole concessionaire for the park, and Yosemite Park and Curry Company went on to build much of the park&#39;s service structures.</p><br>
<h3>Early years</h3><br>
<p>Donald Tresidder, as president of the Yosemite Park and Curry Company, oversaw the building of the Ahwahnee Hotel and several other major structures within the park. The name originally selected for the new hotel was "Yosemite All-Year-Round Hotel", but Tresidder changed it just prior to opening to reflect the site&#39;s native name.</p><br>
<p>After the Ahwahnee was built, Tresidder had to overcome a number of financial obstacles. The cost of the hotel was nearly double the original estimate, and as fall approached, the number of guests began to dwindle. Park officials became concerned and suggested closing the hotel for the winter. To avoid this and to keep guests and income flowing, Tresidder centered the hotel around skiing and other winter activities. In order to keep the hotel filled throughout the holiday period, Tresidder also proposed Christmas entertainment. A banquet event was planned based on a story by Washington Irving about an eighteenth-century English Christmas at the home of the Squire of Bracebridge. The cast was filled with locals from the park, including photographer Ansel Adams.</p><br>
<h3>Trademark and intellectual property disputes</h3><br>
<p>In 1993 the National Park Service required a new concessioner to purchase the Yosemite Park and Curry Company from MCA Inc. and rename the business as a new company. The new concession contract was awarded to Delaware North and required that it assume all the assets and liabilities of the previous operator and deed the real property to the National Park Service.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, Delaware North lost a bid to renew its contract with the USA government to Yosemite Hospitality, LLC, a division of Aramark. When it had originally taken over the concessionaries in 1993, Delaware North was contractually required to purchase, at fair market value, "the assets of the previous concessionaire, including its intellectual property, at a cost of $115 million in today&#39;s dollars." This property included trademarks that were registered by both Delaware North and its predecessors, including place names such as Ahwahnee, Badger Pass, Curry Village, Yosemite Lodge, the slogan "Go climb a rock", and even "Yosemite National Park" itself. The contract with Delaware North also required that if it were to be succeeded as concessionaire, the successor must acquire all of the assets of the previous operator at fair market value. The contract with Yosemite Hospitality stated that the company be required to purchase furniture, equipment, vehicles, and "other property", but did not explicitly include intellectual property.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, Delaware North sued the NPS in the United States Court of Claims for breach of contract, claiming that the contract with Yosemite Hospitality excluded intellectual property from the asset purchasing clause, and demanded a payment for the property to be determined in court. Delaware North initially asserted the fair market value of its properties to be $51 million, but the National Park Service estimated the value of the intangible assets at $3.5 million. The dispute gained national attention after it was publicized in an issue of Outside magazine, which led to the Sierra Club issuing a petition requesting that Delaware North drop the lawsuit.</p><br>
<p>In January 2016, it was announced that due to the trademark dispute with Delaware North, the Ahwahnee Hotel, as well as other historic hotels and lodges in the park, would be renamed. The Ahwahnee was renamed the Majestic Yosemite Hotel effective March 1, 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Concept and build</h2><br>
<h3>Architecture and interior design</h3><br>
<p>The Ahwahnee is a 150,000 ft&sup2; Y-shaped building The hotel was designed by architect Gilbert Stanley Underwood, who also designed Zion Lodge, Bryce Canyon Lodge, and Grand Canyon North Rim Lodge. It was made to feel rustic and match its surroundings, and the hotel is considered a masterpiece of "parkitecture".</p><br>
<p>The original concept art for the hotel depicted a building that was far grander than what would eventually be constructed. Underwood&#39;s original design called for a massive six story structure, but Tresidder and the board requested a hotel with only 100 guest rooms that would feel more like a luxurious country home than a hotel. The design was changed several times and at one point the hotel was to be no larger than three stories high, but eventually a more expansive layout was selected to accommodate the 100 guest rooms along with several public spaces.</p><br>
<p>The interior design of the hotel also underwent several changes. Artist and interior designer Henry Lovins originally suggested a "Mayan revival" theme with Hispano-Moresque influences. Drawing on their experience as art historians, Ackerman and Pope created a style that mixed Art Deco, Native American, Middle Eastern, and Arts and Crafts styles. The interior work was carried out by a number of artisans under their supervision. Much of the decoration originally used was Persian, and Ackerman and Pope would go on to become art consultants in Iran.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>The hotel was constructed from 5,000 shton of rough-cut granite, 1,000 shton of steel, and 30,000 ft of timber. The steel came from the Union Iron Works in San Francisco and the timber came from land owned by the Curry family. The apparent wood siding and structural timber on the hotel&#39;s exterior are actually formed from stained concrete poured into molds to simulate a wood pattern. Concrete was chosen as the material for the outside "wood" elements to make the hotel fire resistant. Construction lasted eleven months and cost US$1,225,000 upon completion in July 1927.</p><br>
<p>After construction was complete, the company began an advertising campaign to showcase the new amenities. However, just before opening day, the director noticed that the porte-cochère planned for the west side of the building, where the Indian room now sits, would allow exhaust fumes from automobiles to invade the premises. A hastily designed Douglas Fir pole porte-cochère entry and parking area were erected on the east side of the hotel to correct this (the logs were replaced in the 1990s). This would be the first of many changes to the hotel. In 1928, a roof garden and dance hall were converted into a private apartment after the dance hall failed to draw an audience. In 1931, the load-bearing trusses in the dining room were reinforced after it was discovered that they were barely adequate to support the snow load on the roof and potential earthquake stresses.</p><br>
<p>When Prohibition was rescinded in 1933, a private dining room was converted into the El Dorado Diggins bar, evocative of the California Gold Rush period. 1943 saw the United States Navy take over the hotel for use as a convalescent hospital for war veterans. Some of the changes made to the hotel by the Navy included a repainting of the interior and the enclosure of the original porte-cochère. After the war, when few people brought servants with them, the owners converted the chauffeur and maid rooms into guest rooms.</p><br>
<p>The 1950s, 60s, and 70s brought several upgrades to the hotel, including fire escapes, a fire alarm system, and a sprinkler system, along with an outdoor swimming pool and automatic elevators, and in the late 1970s, smoke detectors. From 2003 to 2004 the roof was overhauled, and virtually the entire slate-tile roof and copper gutter system were replaced. Martech Associates, Inc. of Millheim, Pennsylvania, designed the updated roof and served as the general contractor for the project. The project cost approximately US$4 million and is notable for its 97 percent material recycling rate. An article in the Los Angeles Times on March 13, 2009, stated that seismic retrofits might be needed for the Ahwahnee.</p><br>
<h2>Grand Dining Room and kitchen</h2><br>
<p>The Grand Dining Room is 130 feet long and 51 feet wide, with a 34-foot ceiling supported by rock columns, creating a cathedral-like atmosphere. For fire safety reasons, the wood beams in the dining room are actually hollow and contain steel beams. The alcove window at the end of the room perfectly framed Yosemite Falls when the hotel was completed.</p><br>
<p>The Grand Dining Room was originally designed to accommodate 1,000 guests, but it was eventually scaled down to seat 350. However, the enormous kitchen still reflects the original design concept and includes separate stations for baking and pastries. High quality kitchen appliances were installed so the hotel could compete with fine dining establishments, and the facility was specifically constructed to handle special events and functions.</p><br>
<p>Regular entertainment is provided at dinner by a pianist. Local Yosemite artist Dudley Kendall played piano in the dining room at the Ahwahnee for years and had his work displayed at the hotel.</p><br>
<h3>Bracebridge Dinner tradition</h3><br>
<p>The Bracebridge Dinner is a seven-course formal gathering held in the Grand Dining Room and presented as a feast given by a Renaissance-era lord. This tradition began in 1927, the Ahwahnees first year of operation, and was inspired by the fictional Squire Bracebridges Yule celebration in a story from The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. by Washington Irving. Music and theatrical performances based on Irving&#39;s story accompany the introduction of each course. Donald Tresidder conceived the idea for the event with his wife Mary Curry, their friends, and park staff.</p><br>
<p>Tresidder hired Garnet Holme for the events first year to write the script and produce the event, and Tresidder and his wife played the squire and his lady until Tresidders death in 1948. Photographer Ansel Adams, who was working for the Yosemite Park and Curry Company and was well known in Yosemite for his eccentricities, was asked to be a part of Tresidder&#39;s new winter celebrations in the elaborate, theatrical Christmas dinner with friends from the nearby Bohemian Club. Cast as the "Jester", Adams had asked the director for suggestions but was told to just act like a jester. Adams fortified himself with a few drinks and went on to climb the granite pillars to the rafters. Adams played the Lord of Misrule for the first two years. When Holme died in 1929, Tresidder asked Adams to take over the direction of the show. Adams reworked the script considerably in 1931, creating the role of Major Domo, head of the household, for himself while his wife, Virginia Best Adams, played the housekeeper.</p><br>
<p>The dinner was not held during World War II, when the Ahwahnee was functioning as a naval hospital. When it resumed, the 1946 dinner introduced chorale concerts and more significant musical performances. Up until 1956 there was only a single performance, and then the number of performances gradually increased to a total of eight. Ansel Adams retired from the event in 1973, passing it on to Eugene Fulton, who had been part of the male chorus since 1934 and musical director since 1946. Fulton died unexpectedly on Christmas Eve in 1978 and his wife, Anna-Marie, and his daughter, Andrea, took over that year and produced the show. In 1979, Andrea Fulton assumed the role of director, which she holds to this day while also playing the role of housekeeper.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, the Bracebridge dinner celebrated its 85th anniversary. Travel + Leisure magazine named Yosemite&#39;s Ahwahnee Hotel as one of the best hotels in the United States for the holidays for two consecutive years (2011 and 2012). For much of its history, tickets to the event were difficult to obtain. In prior years, the scarce tickets were awarded to applicants by lottery. In 1992, there were a reported 60,000 applications for the coveted 1,650 seats. In 1995, the organizers of the traditional dinner accepted ticket cancellations because the park could have been shut down due to the national budget impasse. After a five year absence, the Bracebridge Dinner returned to the Ahwahnee Hotel in 2024, with ticket prices set at over $500 per person.</p><br>
<h2>Great Lounge</h2><br>
<p>The Great Lounge is one of the main public spaces in the hotel. The large space spans the full width of the wing and nearly its full length (minus the solarium). There are two large fireplaces on either end of the room made from cut sandstone. On either side of the lounge is a series of floor-to-ceiling plate-glass picture windows ornamented at their tops with stained glass. The individual border designs in the beams of the Great Lounge are by artist Jeanette Dryer Spencer.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<h3>Film</h3><br>
<p>Interiors of the Ahwahnee Hotel were adapted for Stanley Kubricks horror film The Shining (1980). Designers at Elstree Studios incorporated the hotels lobby, elevators, and Great Lounge into sets for the Overlook Hotel.</p><br>
<p>Both the film The Caine Mutiny (1954) and Color of a Brisk and Leaping Day (1996) include footage of the Ahwahnee Hotel.</p><br>
<h3>Radio</h3><br>
<p>The Ahwahnee Hotel features in the February 18, 1940, and February 25, 1940, episodes of The Jell-O Program Starring Jack Benny. In the script, the entire cast visit and stay in a fictionalized, comedic version of the hotel during a ski vacation to Badger Pass.</p><br>
<h2>Notable guests</h2><br>
<p>The hotel and dining room have hosted many notable figures including artists, royalty, heads of state, film and television stars, writers, business executives, and other celebrities. business moguls Walt Disney and Steve Jobs; entertainers Desi Arnaz, Lucille Ball, Charlie Chaplin, Judy Garland, Leonard Nimoy, Will Rogers and William Shatner; and writer Gertrude Stein.</p><br>
<p>The Cape Henry Lighthouses are a pair of lighthouses at Cape Henry, the landform marking the southern entrance to Chesapeake Bay in the USA state of Virginia. The location has long been important for the large amount of ocean-going shipping traffic for the harbors, its rivers, and shipping headed to ports on the bay. The original lighthouse was the first authorized by the USA government, dating from 1792. It was also the first federal construction project under the Constitution, for an original contract amount of $15,200 . A second lighthouse was built and completed in 1881 a short distance away after concern arose about the stability of the first. Both towers of the light station were designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first work of the new USA Federal government, the first Cape Henry lighthouse was built of Aquia and brown sandstone, likely Connecticut or Portland brownstone, by John McComb Jr. and was completed in November, 1792. McComb was one of the architects involved in the construction of New York City Hall and would go on to design other lighthouses. The lighthouse&#39;s design was based on the 1767 Cape Henlopen Light. The light was extinguished for the second time and the lens removed by Confederate forces during the American Civil War, but was removed by Union forces and returned in 1863, who depended on the light for navigation to maintain access to nearby Fort Monroe. In the 1870s, inspections by the Lighthouse Service discovered large cracks forming on six out of the eight faces of the tower and concerns soon arose about the safety of the old light at Cape Henry. This led to the construction of a new, taller, lighthouse at Cape Henry in 1881, which stands 350 feet to the northeast of the original tower. The old tower remained standing, used as a daymark and as a basis for triangulation. The lighthouse was fully automated in 1984 and remains in use today.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>In 1798, Benjamin Latrobe visited Cape Henry Lighthouse and described it as "an octangular truncated pyramid of eight sides, rising 90 feet to the light..." The Old Cape Henry Lighthouse is 26 feet in diameter at its base, and 16 feet at its top. It was built with Aquia Creek sandstone from the same source as the White House.</p><br>
<p>The new lighthouse, 157 ft tall, was built of cast iron and wrought iron, with a more powerful first-order Fresnel lens. It is the only lighthouse on the Virginia coast that is still equipped with a first-order Fresnel lens.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<p>The older lighthouse was acquired in 1930 by Preservation Virginia (formerly known as the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities). A brick lining and an iron stairway have been added to the interior. The lighthouse is open to the public and a fine view can be enjoyed from its observation platform. It was designated a National Historic Landmark on January 29, 1964. In 2002 the American Society of Civil Engineers designated the lighthouse a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.</p><br>
<p>The lighthouses are located in the city of Virginia Beach within the boundaries of Joint Expeditionary Base East, a Navy base. The Cape Henry Memorial is adjacent to the lighthouses.</p><br>
<p>Fort Story lighthouse.jpgSecond tower, modern photo</p><br>
<p>USCGCapeHenrylightouse.jpgSecond tower, USA Coast Guard Archive</p><br>
<p>The Fort Worth Stockyards is a historic district that is located in Fort Worth, Texas, United States, north of the central business district. A 98 acre portion encompassing much of the district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as Fort Worth Stockyards Historic District in 1976. It holds a former livestock market which operated under various owners from 1866.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The arrival of railroads in 1876 made the area a very important livestock center. Fort Worth Union Stockyards opened for business on January 19, 1890, covering 206 acres. On February 7, the Fort Worth Dressed Meat and Packing Company was founded. This facility was operated without profit until purchased by G. W. Simpson of Boston. In an effort to produce revenue, they reached out to the Swift and Armour companies to establish packing houses. By 1886, four stockyards had been built near the railroads. Boston capitalist Greenleif W. Simpson, with a half dozen Boston and Chicago associates, incorporated the Fort Worth Stock Yards Company on March 23, 1893, and purchased the Union Stock Yards and the Fort Worth Packing Company. The Stockyards experienced early success. By 1907, the Stockyards sold a million cattle per year. The stockyards was an organized place where cattle, sheep, and hogs could be bought, sold and slaughtered. Fort Worth remained an important part of the cattle industry until the 1950s. Business suffered due to livestock auctions held closer to where the livestock were originally produced.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>The Fort Worth Stockyards now celebrates Fort Worth&#39;s long tradition as a part of the cattle industry and was listed on the National Register as a historical district in 1976. The listing included 46 contributing buildings and one other contributing structure. the Livestock Exchange Building, and the Thannisch Block Building housing the Stockyards Hotel. State Antiquities Landmarks also include the entrance sign as well as the Armour & Swift Plaza and the Cowtown Coliseum.</p><br>
<p>The Stockyards consist of mainly entertainment and shopping venues that capitalize on the "Cowtown" image of Fort Worth. Home to the famous boot making company M.L. Leddys which is located in the heart of the Stockyards and The Maverick Fine Western Wear and Saloon where customers "can belly up to the bar, relax and have a cold beer while in the Stockyards; just like they did in the days of the big cattle drives", as they shop around the store. The city of Fort Worth is often referred to as "Where the West Begins." Many bars and nightclubs (including Billy Bobs Texas) are located in the vicinity, and the area has a Western motif. There is also an opry and the weekend rodeos at Cowtown Coliseum. Some volunteers still run the cattle drives through the stockyards, a practice developed in the late 19th century by the frontiersman Charles "Buffalo" Jones, who herded buffalo calves through the streets of Garden City, Kansas.</p><br>
<p>A reenactment of a 19th Century cattle drive took place in 1999 as part of the city&#39;s sesquicentennial celebration. Weather permitting, drives continue to be held twice daily except on certain holidays.</p><br>
<p>On April 1, 2011, the Fort Worth Stockyards Stables were remodeled and reopened. They are located next door to the Hyatt hotel in an original Historic Stockyards building that was built in 1912. Moved to the Armour building after the 2015 remodel. The stables offers horse rentals on the open trails of the Trinity River and carriage rides.</p><br>
<p>The Grapevine Vintage Railroad runs a heritage railway service between Grapevine–Main Street station and the Stockyards.</p><br>
<p>Fort Egypt, a large log house, is a historic landmark in Page County, Virginia and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places .</p><br>
<p>Built of 20"-25" diameter logs dovetailed at the corners, Fort Egypt has a massive stone chimney in the center of the house. It contains a fortified cellar with loop holes, possibly designed for protection against Indian attacks. No known Indian attacks occurred at Fort Egypt.</p><br>
<p>The building was built about 1758 by Jacob Strickler (one of the early leaders of the Mennonite Church), and his descendants lived here for many generations. Several of the rooms are very large and were probably used for meetings of the Mennonite Church in this community before any church buildings were built.</p><br>
<p>This home is located near the center of the 1,000 acre (4 km) tract granted to the pioneer Abraham Strickler in 1735 and called the Egypt Bend tract.</p><br>
<p>The building was restored by its current owners and is in an excellent state of preservation.</p><br>
<p>The Minnesota Governors Residence, informally referred to as the Governors Mansion, serves as the official home of the governor of the USA state of Minnesota. The house, located at 1006 Summit Avenue in Saint Paul, is on 1.5 acre of land. The building is slightly more than 16,000 ft&sup2; in size.</p><br>
<p>The house was designed by Minneapolis architect William Channing Whitney for Saint Paul lumber businessman Horace Hills Irvine and his family. The 20 room English Tudor house has nine bedrooms, eight bathrooms, and nine fireplaces. The Irvine family lived in the home from 1912 until 1965, when the Irvines&#39; youngest daughters, Clotilde Irvine Moles and Olivia Irvine Dodge, donated it to the people of Minnesota to serve as the official residence of the First Family.</p><br>
<p>The Minnesota Legislature in 1965 passed a law accepting the donation and designating the house as the State Ceremonial Building for official public use for state ceremonial functions and as a governor&#39;s residence. The law placed the house and its management under the jurisdiction of the Minnesota Department of Administration. From 1965 until 1980, governors were permitted to propose changes to the house. The Legislature provided renovation funds and the Department of Administration supervised the improvements. From 1965 to 1967, a committee assisted with furnishing the house, but the governor retained the authority to make changes.</p><br>
<p>In 1974, the house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. With this designation, any renovation to the exterior of the residence must be reviewed and approved by the State Historic Preservation Office of the Minnesota Historical Society. It is also a contributing property to the Historic Hill District.</p><br>
<p>Every year, a forester from the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources selects a giant Christmas tree, harvested from a Minnesota State Forest, often from near Pine City, to adorn the front lawn during the holiday season.</p><br>
<h2>Governor&#39;s Residence Council and staff</h2><br>
<p>In 1980, in an effort to establish more consistent management for the house, the Legislature authorized the State Ceremonial Building Council. In 1983, the name was changed to the Governor&#39;s Residence Council.</p><br>
<p>The council has 19 members: the Commissioner of Administration, the governor&#39;s spouse, the executive director of the Arts Board, the director of the Minnesota Historical Society, one member each from the Minnesota House of Representatives and the Minnesota Senate, and 13 members appointed by the governor. The council develops restoration plans, approves alterations, and solicits contributions for improvements or furnishings for public areas of the building.</p><br>
<p>There are five staff members at the mansion: a manager, an assistant manager, a chef, a housekeeper, and a groundskeeper. At times during the summer, Minnesota Historical Society offers tours free of charge to the public.</p><br>
<p>The Oklahoma State Capitol is the house of government of the USA state of Oklahoma. It is the building that houses the Oklahoma Legislature and executive branch offices. It is located along Lincoln Boulevard in Oklahoma City and contains 452,508 square feet of floor area. The present structure includes a dome completed in 2002.</p><br>
<p>Oklahomas first capital was Guthrie, Oklahoma, but it moved to Oklahoma City in 1910. Construction began on the Oklahoma State Capitol in 1914 and was completed in 1917. Originally, it housed the judicial branch of Oklahoma, but the states high courts moved most of their operations to the Oklahoma Judicial Center in 2011, leaving only the Supreme Court Hearing Chamber in the capitol building.</p><br>
<p>The state capitol complex is the only state capitol grounds in the United States with active oil rigs.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early capital of Guthrie (1889–1900)</h3><br>
<p>Oklahoma&#39;s territorial capital and first state capital was located in the city of Guthrie. The settlement of the first state capital began at noon on April 22, 1889, when cannons sounded the start of the Oklahoma land run. The town was designated as the territorial capital in 1890.</p><br>
<h3>Move to Oklahoma City and construction (1910–1917)</h3><br>
<p>State government officials let voters decide on whether or not to move the capital to Oklahoma City. On June 11, 1910, the state seal was taken from Guthrie and moved south to Oklahoma City, where the Oklahoma State Capitol is located today. Lee Cruce, the second Governor of Oklahoma, commissioned the architectural construction of the present day structure. Prior to its construction, state government offices were housed in the Huckins Hotel in downtown Oklahoma City.</p><br>
<p>Construction on the Oklahoma State Capitol began after a groundbreaking ceremony on July 20, 1914. Architects Soloman Andrew Layton (1864-1943) and S. Wemyss-Smith were paid $75,000 to develop the architectural plans, while James Stewart & Company received the construction contract.</p><br>
<p>The building&#39;s exterior is constructed mainly of Indiana limestone, with a base of local Oklahoma pink granite, and Oklahoma black granite for the center grand staircase. The interior prominently features marble as well as fixtures from a variety of sources. While original plans called for a dome, it was omitted due to cost overruns discovered in the second year of the construction project in 1915 when the original $1.5 million appropriated by the Oklahoma Legislature proved insufficient. The building was, however, designed with underground underlying foundations to be able to support a higher dome, which amazingly was finally added over a century later.</p><br>
<p>The building was completed on June 30, 1917.</p><br>
<h3>Earthquake damage</h3><br>
<p>In 1952, a 5.5-magnitude earthquake near El Reno caused several cracks to materialize in walls and ceilings of the Capitol, including one crack measuring about 50 feet in length.</p><br>
<h3>Expansion and change (1998–present)</h3><br>
<p>In 1998, state legislators and the governor enacted legislation to create the Oklahoma Centennial Act, which formed the Oklahoma Capitol Complex and Centennial Commemoration Commission.</p><br>
<p>In 2006, plans were made to move the judicial branch into the old Oklahoma Historical Society building, as the agency was moving into the Oklahoma History Center. The court offices moved to the new Oklahoma Judicial Center in 2011.</p><br>
<h3>Ten Commandments Monument controversy</h3><br>
<h2>Exterior and Capitol complex</h2><br>
<p>The Oklahoma State Capitol, located at 2300 North Lincoln Boulevard, Oklahoma City is composed primarily of white limestone and Oklahoma pink granite. However, the building&#39;s dome is made of steel-reinforced concrete and reinforced plaster casts.</p><br>
<p>The state capitol complex is famous for its oil wells and remains the only state capitol grounds in the United States with active oil rigs. The capitol building is directly atop the Oklahoma City Oil Field.</p><br>
<p>The state capitol building and the surrounding government buildings, non-government agencies, museums, libraries, and tree lined streets and boulevards form the Oklahoma State Capitol Complex or Capitol Campus. The complex includes the State Capitol Park, the Oklahoma History Center, the Oklahoma Judicial Center, and the Oklahoma Governors Mansion. The 14,000 ft&sup2; mansion has a limestone exterior to complement the Oklahoma State Capitols exterior. The surrounding neighborhood is home to numerous restaurants and bars.</p><br>
<p>The Oklahoma History Center opened in 2005 and is operated by the Oklahoma Historical Society. It preserves the history of Oklahoma from prehistoric Native American tribes to the present day.</p><br>
<h2>Interior</h2><br>
<p>The west wing of the Capitol houses the Oklahoma House of Representatives chamber and offices. The east wing houses</p><br>
<p>the Oklahoma Senate chamber and offices. The ceremonial office of the governor is located on the second floor. Elected state officials such as the state auditor and inspector, state treasurer, and state attorney general have offices on the first floor. The building also contains a museum, a cafeteria, and a barber shop.</p><br>
<h3>Art</h3><br>
<p>Chickasaw artist Mike Larsens mural Flight of Spirit, honoring the Five Moons, notable 20th-century Native American ballerinas from Oklahoma is on display in the Capitol rotunda. Several large paintings by Wayne Cooper are on display in the building. Many of them depict the early heritage and oil history of the state. Seminole artist Enoch Kelly Haneys painting The Earth and I are One is on display on the first floor of the building.</p><br>
<p>The Senate lobby includes a 6 x oil-on-canvas painting of the Ceremonial Transfer of the Louisiana Purchase in New Orleans - 1803 by Mike Wimmer. The Senate Lounge displays a watercolor painting entitled Community of Boling Springs by Sonya Terpening.</p><br>
<h3>The "Ring of Honor"</h3><br>
<p>The base of the Capitol dome is decorated, in six-inch gold letters, with the names of donors who contributed at least $1 million to the dome&#39;s construction, referred to as "the ring of honor", a concept usually limited to the most prominent players on professional football teams. Donors so named include Halliburton, Hobby Lobby Stores, "the People of Oklahoma", and General Motors. This design decision attracted some criticism at the time, and in 2011 state representative Eric Proctor attempted to pass legislation replacing the names with those of Oklahomans who had received the Congressional Medal of Honor.</p><br>
<p>Thornden Park is a 76 acre park in Syracuse, New York, United States, which is the second largest in the city after Burnet Park. It was purchased by the city in 1921 and has become a favorite wedding location in the Syracuse park system. It is located in Westcott, and borders the University and University Hill neighborhoods. The park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Thornden Park began as a farm owned by Zebulon Ostrom, who sold it to a wealthy salt miner James P. Haskins around 1850. In 1921 the city purchased the land as part of the nationwide City Beautiful movement and added recreational features such as the ballfields and swimming pool. During the 1960s, budget cuts threatened the cleanliness of the park; these were countered by neighborhood initiatives. The 1970s brought Dutch elm disease, which killed approximately 600 elm trees in the park. Maple trees were planted as replacements. The Thornden Park Association was founded in 1983 to advocate for, restore and revitalize the park.</p><br>
<h2>Mills Rose Garden</h2><br>
<p>One of the more popular attractions in the park is the E. M. Mills Memorial Rose Garden, dedicated in 1924 on 2 acre at the southwest entrance to the park, across Ostrom Avenue from Syracuse University. Since 1970, the Syracuse Rose Society has maintained the garden in cooperation with the City of Syracuse Department of Parks, Recreation & Youth Programs. Currently, the garden hosts 368 different varieties of roses (3850 plants in all) that surround a central gazebo.</p><br>
<h2>Amphitheater</h2><br>
<p>Originally named Sylvn Theatre, Thornden Park&#39;s amphitheater was built in 1933. The opening day ceremony was rained out but the subsequent opening was attended by 10,000 people. It is built to seat 6,000 people in its concentric rings and open lawn in the middle of the amphitheater. The Syracuse Opera puts on a free show the first Sunday in August each year. Since 2003, the Syracuse Shakespeare Festival has presented its free, Shakespeare-in-the-Park program, currently the first two weekends of June.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>Public swimming pool (50 m)</p><br>
<p>One multi-purpose sports field</p><br>
<p>Five tennis courts</p><br>
<p>Three basketball courts</p><br>
<p>Playground</p><br>
<p>Fitness trail</p><br>
<p>E.M. Mills Memorial Rose Garden</p><br>
<p>Outdoor amphitheater</p><br>
<p>Lily pond</p><br>
<h2>Murals</h2><br>
<p>Historic Locust Grove is a 55-acre 18th-century farm site and National Historic Landmark situated in eastern Jefferson County, Kentucky in what is now Louisville. The site is owned by the Louisville Metro government, and operated as a historic interpretive site by Historic Locust Grove, Inc.</p><br>
<p>The main feature on the property is the ca. 1790 Georgian mansion that was the home of the Croghan family and gathering place for George Rogers Clark, Lewis and Clark, and USA Presidents. In addition to the mansion there is the Visitors Center that houses a gift shop, museum and meeting space.</p><br>
<p>Dozens of African Americans were enslaved at Locust House by the Croghans between 1790 and 1849. At the peak of the farm&#39;s operations in 1820, more than 40 enslaved people labored there.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The site was founded in 1790 by William Croghan and his wife Lucy Clark Croghan. The house and outbuildings were built by enslaved African Americans. Enslaved people also planted and harvested the crops, cooked the meals, made the family&#39;s clothing, washed their laundry, and were caregivers for the Croghan children.</p><br>
<p>Lucy was the sister of Brigadier General George Rogers Clark, former surveying partner of William Croghan and William Clark of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. At its peak, the Locust Grove estate was nearly 700 acre in size, and a small fraction of Croghan&#39;s extensive landholdings, which exceeded 53,000 acre at his death in 1822.</p><br>
<p>Tracing their way back from the Pacific Ocean, on November 8, 1806, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark arrived at Locust Grove to a homecoming where Lucy Clark Croghan and her family welcomed them back from their journey. Locust Grove became the only residence still in existence west of the Appalachian Mountains to have sheltered Lewis and Clark. In the Fall of 2006, Locust Grove commemorated the 200th anniversary of Lewis and Clark&#39;s return.</p><br>
<p>George Rogers Clark lived at the site in the final years of his life, from 1809 to 1818.</p><br>
<p>The property was adjacent to Springfield, the home of Colonel Richard Taylor and his son, future USA President Zachary Taylor.</p><br>
<p>Following the death of William Croghan, the estate passed to John C. Croghan, notable for his purchase of Mammoth Cave in 1838.</p><br>
<p>In the winter of 1844, the enslaved African-American Stephen Bishop produced a map of Mammoth Cave. His map was published in 1845 and remained the most complete and accurate map of the period until modern survey techniques were applied in 1908. A significant epilogue to Bishops story occurred in 1972, when a long-sought route connecting the caves of Flint Ridge and Mammoth Cave Ridge was discovered in an area which Bishop had mapped, but which had in the interim been almost completely flooded by the construction of a dam on the surface nearby: the area of the 20th Century connection route is shown on Bishops 19th century map.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1986, as one of the few surviving residences associated with George Rogers Clark.</p><br>
<p>Locust Grove closeup.JPGCloseup of main house</p><br>
<p>Locust Grove NE.JPGNortheast view of main house</p><br>
<p>Locust Grove SE.JPGSoutheast view of main house</p><br>
<p>Locust Grove SW.JPGSouthwest view of main house</p><br>
<p>Locust Grove 1815 Log Cabin.JPGLog Cabin built around 1815 at the site</p><br>
<p>Locust Grove Smokehouse.JPGThe smokehouse is the only other original building at Locust Grove</p><br>
<p>Locust Grove Springhouse.JPGSpringhouse</p><br>
<p>Locust Grove Springhouse 2.JPGSpringhouse</p><br>
<p>Locust Grove Woodworking.JPGWoodworking shed</p><br>
<p>Locust Grove Visitor Center.JPGVisitor Center</p><br>
<p>Edge Hill is a historic plantation house located near Woodford in Caroline County, Virginia, United States. It was built in two sections. The earliest dates from 1820 to 1821 and enlarged about 1840 by adding the western half, giving it a formal, symmetrical five-bay facade. It is a two-story brick dwelling with a gable roof and Federal exterior and interior detailing.</p><br>
<p>Also on the property is a large wooden building sheathed in board-and-batten siding and covered by a shallow hipped roof. It was built in 1857, as the Edge Hill Academy, a boys&#39; school operated by the owner of Edge Hill.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.</p><br>
<p>Martin Luther College  is a private Lutheran college in New Ulm, Minnesota. It is operated by the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod . Martin Luther College was established in 1995, when Northwestern College  of Watertown, Wisconsin, combined with Dr. Martin Luther College  of New Ulm on the latter&#39;s campus.</p><br>
<p>MLC offers several undergraduate and graduate degree programs, all of which train students for service in the WELS. Men who graduate from the college&#39;s pre-seminary program may enroll at Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. Men and women who graduate from its education programs may be assigned by the WELS as teachers and staff ministers to synod churches, schools, and missions. In 2019, MLC enrolled 731 undergraduate students and 129 graduate students.</p><br>
<p>Situated on a bluff above the Minnesota River, MLCs 88 acre campus is a neighbor to Hermann Heights Monument and is home to the 38,000 ft&sup2; Chapel of the Christ. The colleges Gothic Revival-inspired Old Main building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 for having state-level significance in the themes of architecture, education, and religion.</p><br>
<p>Martin Luther College&#39;s 16 varsity sports teams compete at the NCAA Division III level and are known as the Knights. The college is a member of the Upper Midwest Athletic Conference.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Martin Luther College was established in 1995 when Northwestern College (NWC), located in Watertown, Wisconsin, combined with Dr. Martin Luther College (DMLC) located in New Ulm, Minnesota, at the New Ulm campus.</p><br>
<h3>Northwestern College</h3><br>
<p>Northwestern College was established in 1865 to train pastors for the Wisconsin Synod.</p><br>
<p>After the Wisconsin Synod was founded in 1850, the church body had received its pastors from mission societies in Germany. However, as the synod developed a more confessional stance, a desire to train its own pastors grew. Furthermore, it was becoming more challenging to provide the church body with a sufficient number of pastors. In 1863, the Wisconsin Synod passed a resolution to establish a college and seminary in Watertown for the training of its own ministers in America.</p><br>
<h4>Beginnings</h4><br>
<p>Northwestern College began operation in 1865, when the first building was dedicated. The square-shaped building, topped by a small, square cupola, was affectionately called the Kaffeemuehle, or coffee grinder, by Northwestern&#39;s early, mostly German-speaking, students. The building housed the college, its preparatory department, and a seminary.</p><br>
<p>Financial hardship marked the earliest years of Northwestern due to a lack of interest from Wisconsin Synod congregations, yet in 1868 the college built a new dormitory and added 30 acre to its property.</p><br>
<p>The Wisconsin Synod also solidified its confessional stance during this time and entered into fellowship with the Missouri Synod. The seminary then combined with the Missouri Synod seminary in St. Louis. The college provided pre-seminary training for both synods.</p><br>
<p>Professor August Ernst was installed as a professor in 1869 and became college president. He redesigned the college&#39;s institutional structure to match the German Gymnasium system. The college and preparatory departments included seven class levels, each designated by a Latin name. The Latin names are still in use at Luther Preparatory School.</p><br>
<p>The teaching department left in 1892 for New Ulm when the Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan synods federated, leaving the pre-seminary department in Watertown.</p><br>
<p>On the night of July 30, 1894, the Kaffeemuehle was struck by lightning and set ablaze. The building was destroyed, and the college constructed the Recitation Building in its place by 1895.</p><br>
<p>In 1909 the Northwestern Club of Milwaukee, a group of alumni, decided to gift a gymnasium to their alma mater. At the gymnasiums dedication in 1912, St. Matthews congregation of Milwaukee presented a statue representing a "Sprinter on His Marks", commonly called the Sprinter, and President William Taft sent a telegram of congratulations.</p><br>
<h4>Later years</h4><br>
<p>Through a special offering collected at WELS congregations, many improvements and building projects were completed at the campuses of Northwestern College and Dr. Martin Luther College, beginning in the 1950s. Additionally, Mrs. Meta Kilgas Michelson of Manitowoc, Wisconsin, bequeathed the funds to build a campus chapel at NWC, dedicated in 1956.</p><br>
<p>By 1974, the preparatory department began to operate apart from the college as Northwestern Preparatory School, today&#39;s Luther Preparatory School, but continued to share a campus with Northwestern College. Luther Preparatory School has remained on this campus since then.</p><br>
<h3>Dr. Martin Luther College</h3><br>
<p>Dr. Martin Luther College was established in 1884 to train pastors and teachers for the Minnesota Synod, one of the church bodies incorporated into the present-day WELS in 1917.</p><br>
<p>The Minnesota Synod, founded in 1860, suffered from doctrinal disunity and a shortage of workers throughout its early years. The synod sought to resolve these issues by establishing its own theological school in Minnesota.</p><br>
<h4>Early years</h4><br>
<p>The Minnesota Synod received several bids from communities to be the location of the new school. New Ulm was ultimately chosen due to its favorable site, the persuasion of Rev. C.J. Albrecht, and the large support from both Albrecht&#39;s congregation in New Ulm and members of the New Ulm community. Albrecht would later become the first president of DMLC.</p><br>
<p>Dr. Martin Luther College began operation in 1884. In its early years, preparatory, college, and seminary departments were all kept on the same campus. The direction of the school changed in 1892 when the Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan synods federated. The synods resolved to exclusively train their pastors at Northwestern College and their teachers at DMLC, beginning in the 1893–1894 school year.</p><br>
<p>DMLC began admitting women in 1896. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, there were some misgivings among Wisconsin and Missouri Synod leaders about employing women to teach in their schools. However, by 1938 coeducation was also offered by the Missouri Synod&#39;s Concordia Teachers College, and by 1984 the graduating class of DMLC was 74% female.</p><br>
<p>In 1908, Fritz Reuter became DMLC&#39;s chair of music and had initiated a strong music tradition at the college by the time of his death in 1924. While at DMLC he established singing classes and organized male and mixed choruses. Reuter also composed and arranged many hymns, several of which are used today in Christian Worship: A Lutheran Hymnal, commissioned by the WELS.</p><br>
<p>Under the presidency of Adolph Ackerman, the college began to expand its facilities. After receiving land donations from the New Ulm Commercial Club and public works improvements from the city of New Ulm, the college constructed a chapel/auditorium and a dormitory, Summit Hall, in 1911.</p><br>
<p>During World War I, the ethnically German city of New Ulm was home to a series of rallies led by speakers who spoke out against America&#39;s involvement in the war. Speakers included various local politicians, businessmen, and leaders, including DMLC president Adolph Ackerman. Amid the anti-German feelings of the time, and by recommendation of the Minnesota Commission of Public Safety, the mayor and city attorney of New Ulm were both removed from office. The commission also threatened to close the college. Soon after, the DMLC Board of Control asked Ackerman to resign.</p><br>
<p>As the student body of the college continued to grow, construction began on a new classroom building, now called the Wittenberg Collegiate Center. The building was dedicated on October 14, 1928.</p><br>
<h4>Expansion and growth</h4><br>
<p>After recovering from low enrollments and financial hardships in the 1930s, DMLC began to considerably expand its facilities and programs in the 1950s and 1960s. Fundraising efforts across the WELS supported the construction of many buildings not only on the campus of DMLC but also the campus of Northwestern College. At DMLC, these buildings were constructed as the college experienced rapidly increasing enrollment. During these years the college added new positions and developed new courses, including a secondary education program. DMLC&#39;s preparatory department also separated from the college during this time, becoming Dr. Martin Luther High School in 1962. The high school changed its name to Martin Luther Academy (MLA) in 1967.</p><br>
<p>DMLC observed continued growth in the 1970s. An additional dormitory was dedicated in 1970 and a library building was dedicated in 1971. DMLC reinstated its football team in 1971. A rivalry with Northwestern College was begun when DMLC&#39;s football team began competitive play in 1972. Enrollment at the New Ulm campus continued to grow, so in 1979 Martin Luther Academy moved to the former campus of Campion High School in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, and became Martin Luther Preparatory School.</p><br>
<p>The staff ministry program began at DMLC in 1993.</p><br>
<h3>Martin Luther College</h3><br>
<p>In 1995, a group of students moved the Sprinter statue of NWC&#39;s campus in Watertown, Wisconsin, to New Ulm after the college administration had decided to leave the statue in Watertown. In the same year, the Northwestern College Board of Control donated a statue of Martin Luther to the New Ulm campus. Theodore Olsen became president of the college in 1995.</p><br>
<p>Martin Luther College began offering a graduate degree program in 2005. Mark Zarling was installed as president in 2007.</p><br>
<h4>Recent history</h4><br>
<p>In 2009, Martin Luther College dedicated a new soccer field. The Chapel of the Christ was dedicated in 2010 to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the WELS.</p><br>
<p>The college conducted a capital campaign in conjunction with its silver anniversary in 2020. The campaign goals included heightened recruitment efforts, increased financial aid for students, and expansion of campus facilities.</p><br>
<h2>Academics</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-seminary program</h3><br>
<p>Martin Luther College&#39;s pre-seminary program prepares students for enrollment at Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. Beyond its general education requirements and theology courses, the pre-seminary program stresses foreign languages. In order to graduate, students must complete courses in Hebrew and Greek, the original languages of the Bible, and select studies in a non-biblical foreign language to fulfill the requirements of the program. The foreign language courses offered at MLC include Spanish, Latin, German, and Mandarin Chinese. In addition, the curriculum involves a selective liberal arts emphasis, with special attention given to literature and history.</p><br>
<p>After successful completion of the pre-seminary program, students earn a Bachelor of Arts degree. In accordance with the WELS beliefs about the roles of men and women in the church, only male graduates may continue their education at Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary in Mequon, Wisconsin.</p><br>
<h3>Education program</h3><br>
<p>The college&#39;s education program prepares students for service as teachers in the schools and congregations of the WELS. MLC offers a Bachelor of Science degree to students with majors in early childhood education, elementary education, secondary education and special education. Students may also choose to complete a double major. The education curriculum at MLC includes music courses so that graduates may serve as organists and choir directors in WELS congregations. In addition to general education and professional education courses, students complete five field experiences and two student teaching experiences in classroom settings.</p><br>
<p>After completing all graduation and Minnesota licensure requirements, students may be eligible for assignment by the WELS as teachers to synod congregations and schools.</p><br>
<h3>Staff ministry program</h3><br>
<p>MLC&#39;s staff ministry program prepares students to become staff ministers for congregations in the WELS. Students in the program complete general education courses, professional courses, and practical experiences to equip them for service as staff ministers. The staff ministry program leads to a Bachelor of Science degree with a major in practical theology. Students may also choose a second major in education or parish music.</p><br>
<p>After completing all requirements, students may be assigned by the WELS to various positions in synod congregations, such as Minister of Family and Youth, Minister of Discipleship, and Minister of Christian Education.</p><br>
<h2>Campus</h2><br>
<p>Martin Luther College is situated in the city of New Ulm, Minnesota, on a wooded bluff overlooking the Minnesota River Valley. The college&#39;s 96 acres of property include its main campus, an athletic complex, and a forested property used as a natural outdoor laboratory.</p><br>
<p>The 50 acres main campus is located at the highest point in New Ulm, between Hermann Heights Monument and Flandrau State Park. Most of MLCs academic and administrative operations are located within the colleges Old Main, dedicated in 1884, the Wittenberg Collegiate Center, dedicated in 1928, and the Link, connecting Old Main to the Wittenberg Collegiate Center, dedicated in 1995. The Old Main was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, after being nominated as a leading example of Gothic Revival architecture in Minnesota and a distinctive symbol of local religious education. The main campus also includes the Luther Student Center, Music Hall, Music Center, the 1200-seat Chapel of the Christ, a 900-seat auditorium (within the Wittenberg Collegiate Center), a gymnasium, a library, four residence halls, and several faculty homes. The college&#39;s library cooperates with the Traverse des Sioux Library System.</p><br>
<p>Martin Luther College hosts 17 pipe organs, including the 57-rank Schantz organ in its chapel and a 42-rank Casavant organ in its auditorium.</p><br>
<p>Along with its buildings, the main campus also includes tennis courts, a football field, a softball diamond, and various athletic practice fields. Additionally, the college owns a 38 acre athletic complex located a few blocks from the main campus. It is composed of soccer fields, a baseball diamond, and other practice facilities. The complex was dedicated in 2009 and was funded by both the college and the city of New Ulm.</p><br>
<h2>Student life</h2><br>
<h3>Student body</h3><br>
<p>As of November 2018, Martin Luther College enrolled 764 undergraduate and 128 graduate students. The undergraduate student body included students from 33 states and 8 foreign countries and was 48% female. 564 undergraduates were enrolled in MLCs education programs, while 200 were enrolled in its pre-seminary program. 35% of undergraduate students were alumni of the colleges two preparatory schools, Luther Preparatory School in Watertown, Wisconsin, and Michigan Lutheran Seminary in Saginaw, Michigan.</p><br>
<h3>Residential life</h3><br>
<p>Martin Luther College generally requires its students to live on-campus during their undergraduate years. This requirement is justified by the administration as an effort to provide students a measure of community at MLC and to develop fellowship and connections beneficial to service in the WELS. The oldest residence is Summit Hall, built in 1911.</p><br>
<p>The Luther Student Center contains the college&#39;s student union, cafeteria, fitness center, locker rooms, and gymnasium. All facilities are available to students from morning until midnight throughout the school year. MLC students are allowed free access to the nearby New Ulm Recreation Center.</p><br>
<p>Morning and evening worship services are conducted daily during the school week in the Chapel of the Christ.</p><br>
<h3>Activities</h3><br>
<h4>Student organizations</h4><br>
<p>Martin Luther College hosts approximately 20 student clubs and organizations. These include various student government, service, special interest, publication, and social organizations. The Martin Luther College Student Senate coordinates funding for most student groups, organizes campus events and projects, and represents the student body before administration.</p><br>
<p>Service organizations include Anchor, a community service group, and Jesus Cares, which ministers to people with intellectual and developmental disabilities.</p><br>
<p>Forum is a student-run theatre organization which presents four productions annually. Urban Ministry, Meet Math, and AVCO are among MLC&#39;s other special interest groups.</p><br>
<p>Martin Luther College has several student-run publications. Hilltop Happenings is a monthly newspaper for undergraduates. KnightWatch Weekly is a one-page recruitment paper sponsored by the Admissions Office. Studium Excitare is an academic journal dedicated to translating previously untranslated works of church fathers from Latin and German into English.</p><br>
<p>Student groups not sanctioned by the college include social clubs COS, led by men in the pre-seminary program, and DEX, led by men in the education programs. Each group hosts social gatherings throughout the year.</p><br>
<h4>Music</h4><br>
<p>Student involvement with the college&#39;s music department is extensive. MLC sponsors four choirs, including the touring College Choir, the Wind Symphony, and two handbell choirs.</p><br>
<p>Organ study at the college prepares students to serve as organists in WELS churches. Enrollment in organ lessons averages about 100 students per year. Students can perform in studio recitals, campus chapel services, concerts, and local congregations. 17 pipe organs are available on campus, including a 57-rank Schantz organ in the Chapel of the Christ and a 42-rank Casavant organ in the Wittenberg Collegiate Center.</p><br>
<h4>Daylight</h4><br>
<p>The Martin Luther College Daylight program offers students experiential learning at WELS congregations in the United States and abroad. Through the program, student volunteers meet congregations&#39; requests for assistance in various outreach programs. Since 2000, almost 2500 MLC students have participated in Daylight.</p><br>
<h2>Athletics</h2><br>
<p>Approximately 30% of Martin Luther College students participate in a varsity sport and about 60% participate in intramural athletics. Martin Luther College fields 16 intercollegiate varsity teams; 8 for men, 8 for women. The college supports an additional 15 intramural leagues. The varsity teams compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division III nine-member Upper Midwest Athletic Conference (UMAC). Mens sports include cross country, soccer, football, basketball, tennis, baseball, track and field, and golf; womens sports include cross country, soccer, volleyball, basketball, tennis, softball, track and field, and golf. In the 2017–2018 school year, 9 out of 16 varsity sports led the UMAC in team grade point average.</p><br>
<p>Since 1995, Martin Luther Colleges teams have won 28 UMAC championships. The schools nickname is the Knights and its colors are black, red, and white.</p><br>
<p>At events during the early 2000s, students formed the Roo Crew, adopting an inflatable kangaroo as the colleges unofficial mascot. The Male Cheerleaders perform humorous routines at home basketball games and interact with the student section and referees. The college has a rivalry with Bethany Lutheran College in nearby Mankato, Minnesota. Teams have played in MLCs football bowl since 1972.</p><br>
<p>MLC supports more than 15 intramural leagues. Opportunities are also available to play hockey and baseball in annual matches with Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary.</p><br>
<h2>Alumni</h2><br>
<p>Alumni of Martin Luther College and its predecessor schools serve as pastors, missionaries, chaplains, principals, teachers, staff ministers, and church leaders for the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Since 1865, alumni have comprised over 90% of the synod&#39;s called workers. Notable alumni include Northwestern College graduates John W. O. Brenner, Franz Pieper, Winfred P. Lehmann, and various theologians and leaders within the WELS.</p><br>
<p>Graduates of the college&#39;s pre-seminary program may continue their education at Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary in Mequon, Wisconsin.</p><br>
<p>Graduates of the colleges education programs may become candidates for assignment to serve in elementary schools, high schools, or congregations of the WELS. The synods leadership cooperates with the college&#39;s officers and administrators to assign candidates to their respective schools and congregations. The Wisconsin Synod is the third largest Lutheran church body in the United States and operates the fourth largest private school system in the nation.</p><br>
<p>The Martin Luther College Alumni Association (MLCAA) is an alumni association available to all graduates of Martin Luther College, Dr. Martin Luther College, Northwestern College, and Martin Luther Academy/Dr. Martin Luther High School. The MLCAA plans events, coordinates funding efforts, and offers educational and travel opportunities. The group communicates with alumni through social media, the Alumni Messenger, and InFocus, MLC&#39;s flagship publication.</p><br>
<p>The Jeffers Petroglyphs site is an outcrop in southwestern Minnesota with pre-contact Native American petroglyphs. The petroglyphs are pecked into rock of the Red Rock Ridge, a 23 mi-long Sioux quartzite outcrop that extends from Watonwan County, Minnesota to Brown County, Minnesota. The exposed surface is approximately 150 by and surrounded by virgin prairie. "The site lies in an area inhabited in the early historic period by the Dakota Indians, and both the style and form of some of the carvings are identical with motifs that appear on Dakota hide paintings and their quill designs and beadwork. Others are foreign to this Plains Indian tradition and seem to be much earlier in origin." Several old wagon trail ruts traverse the site, one of which is believed to be the old stage coach route from New Ulm, Minnesota to Sioux Falls, South Dakota.</p><br>
<p>The exact age of the petroglyphs is not known, but the earliest petroglyphs are estimated to be from 9000 to 7000 years ago (7000 to 5000 BCE). but some atlatl symbols at Jeffers are a close match with similar symbols at Indian Knoll in Kentucky, which have been dated to 3000 BCE during the Late Archaic Period. Another clue to the age comes from the projectile point carvings, which show a projectile point design used by hunters in the Late Archaic Period. Other carvings, such as thunderbirds, dragonflies, turtles, and shamans, indicate symbols used by later tribes such as the Otoe tribe, Sioux, and Iowa tribe. These are believed to date between 900 CE and 1750 CE. There are over 4000 American Indian images preserved in the bedrock. The bedrock was flattened and smoothed over by glaciers 14000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Several archaeologists have hypothesized theories about the purpose of the carvings. Some hypotheses include the practice of hunting magic, performance of sacred ceremonies, or recording historical events in the lives of warriors, shamans, and chiefs. The exact age and purpose of the carvings is only speculation, not established fact. Meanwhile, some Native Americans view the Jeffers site as sacred ground and a very spiritual place, not merely a site to be studied and speculated upon. Jerry Flute, a Dakota elder, was quoted as saying, "To the contemporary Native Americans who reside in and around the state, is a very spiritual place. It is a place where Grandmother Earth speaks of the past, present and future."</p><br>
<p>The Minnesota Historical Society purchased the site from W. R. Jeffers, Jr. in 1966 and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970. It is maintained by the Minnesota Historical Society and is open to the public between May and September. The site is bracketed by two important tracts of tallgrass prairie: Rock Ridge Prairie Scientific and Natural Area to the northwest and Red Rock Prairie, a preserve of The Nature Conservancy, to the east. Here federally threatened prairie bush clover is found, as well as big bluestem, Indian grass, gray-headed coneflower, Maximilian&#39;s sunflower, cordgrass and coreopsis. The upland sandpiper, regal fritillary and Poweshiek skipper can be found on these prairies.</p><br>
<p>The visitor center is open from May through September and features hands-on exhibits and a multimedia presentation about the site. Daily natural and cultural history programs are offered about such topics as archaeology, how Native Americans made and used the atlatl, a travois and cordage, and prairie wildlife and plants.</p><br>
<h2>Astronomy at Jeffers Petroglyphs</h2><br>
<p>The Starry Night, Prairie Night event is held annually in the park. During this time the park manager allows amateur astronomers to use the park and facilities. Many amateur astronomers attend this event and several members bring their telescopes and allow, and often encourage, others to share their views of the night sky. This site is valued not only because of its historic nature but also because of its dark night skies. The site is much darker than most populated areas in Minnesota and is rated green by the Clear Sky Chart.</p><br>
<p>The Fort Zachary Taylor Historic State Park, also known simply as Fort Taylor, is a Florida State Park and National Historic Landmark centered on a Civil War-era fort located near the southern tip of Key West, Florida.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>1845–1900</h3><br>
<p>Construction of the fort began in 1845 as part of a mid-19th century plan to defend the southeast coast of the United States through a series of forts after the War of 1812. Thompson Island, at the southwest tip of Key West, was selected as the site for the fort in 1822 and plans drawn up by Simon Bernard and Joseph G. Totten were approved in 1836. Two supporting artillery batteries, Martello Towers, provided additional coverage, one of which exists today as the Martello Gallery-Key West Art and Historical Museum. The fort was named for United States President Zachary Taylor in November 1850, a few months after his sudden death in office.</p><br>
<p>The United States Army Corps of Engineers leased slaves from local slave-owners for construction of the fort and its neighbor Fort Jefferson. This resulted in an influx of enslaved peoples into the immediate area as, before the construction of the fort, there were no large agricultural ventures and thus not a high demand for slaves, marine salvage being the main industry. By some estimates, the number more than quadrupled from fewer than 90 enslaved people in Key West before construction to over 400 after.</p><br>
<p>The fort&#39;s foundation consists of oolitic limestone and New England granite. Its 5 ft thick walls rose 50 ft above mean low water and included two tiers of casemates with a terreplein or barbette at the top. Three seaward curtains 495 ft between bastions, each containing 42 guns on three levels, were augmented by a land-facing gorge. Troop barracks were built into this gorge with a capacity for 800 men. At either end of the barracks was a large gunpowder magazine while a sally port was located in the center, connected to land by a 1,200 ft causeway. Rainwater was collected in underground cisterns along the perimeter of the fort. Yellow fever epidemics and material shortages slowed construction of the fort, which continued throughout the 1850s. The Pensacola, Florida, firm of Raiford and Abercrombie provided bricks for Fort Zachary Taylor and Fort Jefferson, which was under construction at the same time.</p><br>
<p>Even before the onset of the American Civil War in April 1861, the United States government recognized the importance of holding Fort Taylor if the Southern states seceded. An official report to the United States Secretary of War on December 28, 1860, stated that: "Lieutenant-General Scott will further ask the attention of the Secretary to Forts Jefferson and Taylor, which are wholly national, being of far greater value even to the most distant points of the Atlantic coast... than to the State of Florida. There is only a feeble company at Key West for the defense of Fort Taylor." At midnight on January 13, 1861, Union Captain John Milton Brannan moved his 44 men of the 1st USA Artillery Regiment from Key West Barracks to Fort Taylor. Despite having no orders to do so, Captain Brannan took the initiative in manning the fort to prevent it from falling into Confederate hands. It became a key outpost for threatening blockade runners during the Union blockade. Major William H. French arrived in April 1861 with his artillery unit.</p><br>
<p>In 1898, the fort was reduced to two stories and Battery Osceola was added to the south casemate. The battery consisted of two 12-inch M1895 guns. The Civil War-era guns were used as fill, being buried within the new battery to save on materials. Battery Adair was added to the west casemate and included four 3-inch M1898 15-pounder rapid-fire rifles.</p><br>
<p>The fort was heavily used again during the Spanish–American War (1898), World War I (1917–1918), World War II (1941–1945), and the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962).</p><br>
<h3>1947–present</h3><br>
<p>No longer of use to the USA Army, the fort was turned over to the United States Navy in 1947 for maintenance. In 1968, volunteers led by Howard S. England excavated Civil War guns and ammunition buried in long-abandoned parts of the fort to form what would be considered the nation&#39;s largest collection of Civil War cannons. Fort Taylor was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971 and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1973. Due to the filling in of land around the fort, including the creation of an attractive stretch of beach, the park now occupies 87 acre.</p><br>
<h4>Truman Annex</h4><br>
<p>The fort&#39;s land closer to downtown Key West became part of the Truman Annex to Naval Air Station Key West. It was originally a separate major installation known as Naval Station Key West and, until it closed in 1974, included a submarine base.</p><br>
<p>President Harry S. Truman used Naval Station Key West as his Winter White House for a total of 175 days over 11 visits. The United States Secret Service had a private beach (eventually named after Truman) built on the land for Truman&#39;s security, but he reportedly only visited it once, preferring the public beaches.</p><br>
<p>Naval Station Key West was decommissioned in 1974 as part of post-Vietnam War force reductions because the USA Navy had decommissioned nearly all of its diesel-electric submarines and nuclear-powered submarines were too large for the naval stations port. Most of the former naval station became an annex (the Truman Annex) to Naval Air Station (NAS) Key West and served as the landing point for many Cubans during the 1980 Mariel boatlift of Cuban refugees. Those buildings in the Truman Annex and associated real estate not retained by the Navy as part of NAS Key West were sold to private developers. A museum for the Truman White House was built and the Navy continues to own and maintain the piers and that portion of the former Naval Station Key West property to the North of Fort Taylor, which it uses primarily to support of Joint Interagency Task Force South (JIATF-S). The site also supported Naval Security Group Activity Key West (NAVSECGRUACT KEY WEST) until NAVSECGRUACTs decommissioning in 1996.</p><br>
<h2>Current uses</h2><br>
<p>In addition to the role of the fort and its adjacent beach as tourist attractions, Fort Taylor is also the location of a number of annual events, including week-long Civil War reenactments.</p><br>
<p>The New York City Transit Authority operates 24 rail yards for the New York City Subway system and one for the Staten Island Railway. There are 10 active A Division yards and 11 active B Division yards, two of which are shared between divisions for storage and car washing. In addition, there is one yard for the Staten Island Railway and three non-revenue  Division-independent yards. Many of the system&#39;s yards are used for off-peak storage, whereas some have inspection facilities where basic routine maintenance is carried out. Of these yards, rolling stock are assigned to seven A Division yards and seven B Division yards. Within the yards are 14 maintenance facilities, whereas two yards  perform major overhaul and car rebuilding work.</p><br>
<h2>A Division yards</h2><br>
<p>The A Division&#39;s yards consist of the 239th Street, 240th Street, Corona, East 180th Street, Jerome, Livonia, and Westchester maintenance yards, plus three other non-maintenance storage yards. A total of 2892 cars are assigned to the seven maintenance yards.</p><br>
<h3>137th Street Yard</h3><br>
<p>The 137th Street Yard is an underground rail yard located between 145th Street and 137th Street–City College on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, the latter of which is the yard&#39;s namesake. The yard is used to store some trains outside of rush hours. Each track can hold two full-length trains, so a total of 10 trains can be stored there at any given time. Because the tracks are on a 1% downgrade in the southbound direction, each of the layup tracks are equipped with a derail to protect the main line from a runaway train in the event a train placed on any one the storage tracks is not properly secured.</p><br>
<h3>239th Street Yard</h3><br>
<p>The 239th Street Yard is the northernmost rail yard in the system, located at 4570 Furman Avenue in the Wakefield section of the North Bronx, and is home to the R142s assigned to the . There is also considerable fleet interoperability with the , as 5 trains are based out of the nearby East 180th Street Yard and share a similarly-sized fleet. 5 trains use the upper portion of the yard for off-peak storage. Opened in 1916, it is one of the oldest yards in the system.</p><br>
<p>Ten cars are inspected each day as part of preventative scheduled maintenance. A wheel truing machine was installed here to minimize damage to rail cars and tracks caused by flat wheels. This shop was also used as a facility to retrofit all R26s, R28s, R29s, R33s (except single unit Worlds Fair cars) and R36s (both Mainline and Worlds Fair types) married pairs IRT type cars with the installation of new Stone-Safety 10 ton Air Conditioning systems between 1976 and 1981. Also, during this period, all cars assigned to the were inspected and maintained at the East 180th Street Yard shared with the . It re-opened as an inspection and maintenance facility for the in 1982. A car wash operates at this yard facility to serve cars assigned to the 2, in addition to cars assigned to the , , and 5 routes.</p><br>
<p>The yard consists of a seven-track inspection shop and 38 layup tracks. The layup tracks are arranged on two levels; the only other yard in the system to share this trait is the East New York Yard. Access to the yard is provided to and from Nereid Avenue only.</p><br>
<p>On February 3, 1998, two out-of-service trains collided at the yard lead after the motorman of one train passed out at the helm and his train crashed into the one in front of it.</p><br>
<h3>240th Street Yard</h3><br>
<p>The 240th Street Yard, also known as Van Cortlandt Yard (or VC Yard), is located at 5911 Broadway in the Riverdale section of the Bronx, serving the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line near the line&#39;s northern terminus. The yard consists of six inspection tracks in the shop and 15 additional layup tracks. The yard is home to the R62A subway cars assigned to the . The shop was built in 1906 to support the original IRT subway. Work constructing the yard and inspection shed was 60 percent complete in June 1910, and was estimated to be completed by January 1, 1911. The inspection shed went into service on May 1, 1911.</p><br>
<p>The yard and shops are entirely on an elevated structure. There is no car washer at this yard; the trains occasionally go to the 239th Street or Westchester Yard to be washed, but they usually go to the nearby 207th Street Yard instead. Ten cars undergo 10,000 mile SMS inspections per day, since their entire fleet has been unitized into five-car sets.</p><br>
<p>As part of the 2020–2024 Capital Plan, the shop will be rebuilt with more space in between track and the replacement of pits with elevated tracks.</p><br>
<h3>Corona Yard</h3><br>
<p>Corona Yard serves as the home yard of the IRT Flushing Line . It is located south of Mets–Willets Point, at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park near Citi Field, the National Tennis Center, and the site of the 1939 and 1964 World&#39;s Fairs.</p><br>
<p>Corona Yard opened in 1928 and maintains the R188s used on the . It is adjacent to the Casey Stengel Bus Depot. Because the Flushing Line is isolated from the rest of the A Division and its only track connection to the rest of the system is via the B Division, cars that need to undergo or are returning from heavy maintenance are escorted on and off the line by suitably-equipped lead cars via the sole connection to the rest of the system just east (railroad north) of the upper level Queensboro Plaza station.</p><br>
<p>On August 16, 2006, the original 1928 shop building was demolished and replaced by a new, modern shop. With more track mileage to cover and tighter spacing between trains as part of CBTC implementation on the Flushing Line, the MTA announced plans to expand the yard with a second loop and six layup tracks, which would be located on the former right of way of the Long Island Rail Road&#39;s Whitestone Branch. Plans for this expansion are on an indefinite hold, however.</p><br>
<h3>East 180th Street Yard</h3><br>
<p>The East 180th Street Yard is situated at 1145 East 180th Street in the West Farms neighborhood of the Bronx, just east of the Bronx Zoo. The yard consists of seven storage tracks (numbered 4 thru 10) and an adjacent 6-track (numbered 11 thru 16) shop building with a connection to the nearby 19-track Unionport Yard, which lies to the northeast of East 180th Street Yard. Additionally, there are two storage tracks (identified as A and B) immediately north of the shop building. Track A ends in a bumper block and track B is accessible from the southbound track of the White Plains Road line. The yard is the home of the R142s for the . There is considerable fleet interchange with the . All engineering acceptance testing for newly delivered IRT-type cars is performed here. A new shop building replacing the original 1918 vintage shop building opened in 1999, just in time for acceptance testing of new R142s, which Bombardier started delivering to this facility on November 16, 1999. On October 11, 1923, additional tracks in the yard went into service.</p><br>
<h3>Jerome Yard</h3><br>
<p>The Jerome Yard, or Mosholu Yard, is located at 3191 Jerome Avenue in the Jerome Park neighborhood of the Bronx. The yard was built in 1925. Five tracks went into service in the yard on February 7, 1923.</p><br>
<p>This yard is home to the R142s and R142As for the . It is one of the three yards in the system to be under a housing complex (Pitkin Yard and Lenox Yard are the others). Rail access to the yard is by a pair of tracks that branch off of the elevated IRT Jerome Avenue Line just north of Bedford Park Boulevard–Lehman College station. The riveted steel pylons that support the elevated branch tracks give way to stone pylons just north of 205th Street before they enter the yard. The yard is surrounded by a wall and covered by a parking deck used by residents of the Tracey Towers housing complex. The yard has four inspection tracks, one utility track and 18 layup tracks. Trains are washed at the nearby Concourse Yard.</p><br>
<h3>Lenox Yard</h3><br>
<p>Lenox Yard, formerly the Lenox Avenue Shops, is located near 148th Street and Lenox Avenue in Harlem. This 22 track yard is only used for storage of the R62s that operate on the service, and has no maintenance facility, although the yard had been the first overhaul shop for the IRT when it opened with the rest of the new subway in 1904. The original IRT subway cars were lowered from the street via inclines into the yard, where they continued into the West Side Main Line. The inspection shed was lengthened to fit ten-car trains in Fiscal Year 1910. Around that time, a public school building (currently housing Frederick Douglass Academy) and the Esplanade Gardens apartment complex were constructed on pilotis above the formerly open-air yard.</p><br>
<h3>Livonia Yard</h3><br>
<p>The Livonia Yard is located at 900 Hegeman Avenue in East New York, Brooklyn on an entirely elevated structure at the east end of the IRT New Lots Line. Located between Elton and Linwood Streets, the yard extends from Hegeman Avenue south to Stanley Avenue, passing over Linden Boulevard. One of the smallest maintenance yards in the system, it is where the R62s on the and the R62As on the 42nd Street shuttle are inspected and maintained.</p><br>
<p>The yard, built in 1922 and opened in 1923, Livonia Yard is the only IRT yard in Brooklyn. Livonia Yard consists of 4 inspection tracks inside the Livonia shop and 15 layup tracks. A signal tower is located at the northwest corner of the yard. Many trains are stored in the Lenox Yard in Upper Manhattan, as Livonia is not very large.</p><br>
<p>Livonia, along with 240th Street Yard, are on entirely elevated structures and are in need of rehabilitation due to not meeting the configuration standards for "current industry practices".</p><br>
<p>Additionally, a large amount of space within Livonia is used for the storage of some R142s and R142As for the , and trains.</p><br>
<h3>Unionport Yard</h3><br>
<p>Unionport Yard is associated with the nearby East 180th Street Yard, and is used primarily as a lay-up facility for and trains. It is named after Unionport Road, which lies just east of the yard. There are no shop or wash facilities at this yard, which was expanded in the 1990s from five tracks to its present 19. All but one track ends at bumper blocks. The newly expanded yard became fully operational in 1997. The yard connects to the IRT White Plains Road Line to the south and the IRT Dyre Avenue Line (track 22 connecting to track Y2) to the north.</p><br>
<h3>West Farms Yard</h3><br>
<p>The West Farms Yard was an elevated rail yard that was located adjacently to the West Farms Square–East Tremont Avenue station, at the time called 177th Street. It had eight storage tracks and five inspection barn tracks. It was demolished in 1950; the redundant 180th Street–Bronx Park station was closed down and demolished two years later. In addition to serving Manhattan Elevated Railway cars, it was also used to service cars assigned to the and routes.</p><br>
<h3>Westchester Yard</h3><br>
<p>The Westchester Yard, also known as the Pelham Yard, is located in the Bronx and has 45 layup tracks. The yard maintains and stores the R62As used on the , as well as Maintenance of Way diesel trains for both the A Division and B Division. It is connected to the IRT Pelham Line in both directions between Westchester Square–East Tremont Avenue and Middletown Road stations.</p><br>
<p>There is a four-track inspection shed for electric trains and a two-track diesel repair shop. Pelham Yard also has a car wash used by the entire A Division.</p><br>
<p>The Westchester Yard was expanded between 1946 and 1949 and the scope of the project included a new signal tower, signal installations, and the elimination of the grade crossings between the yard and the Pelham Line north of the Westchester Square station. All of these projects would allow for sped up main line service and train movements in and out of the yard. The grade separation allowed trains to enter Westchester Yard without crossing the express track or the downtown local track and it allowed for the possibility of the extension of express service to Pelham Bay Park, which would save four more minutes. The increased capacity of the yard allowed the yard to store 358 additional subway cars. With the additional storage space, it would no longer be required to lay up trains on the middle track of the line between East 177th Street and Pelham Bay Park, and it would allow for full day express service. The construction of substations would improve voltage conditions and allow for longer trains to be operated on the line. The work was projected to cost $6,387,000 and be completed in 1950.</p><br>
<h2>B Division yards</h2><br>
<p>The B Division&#39;s yards are the 207th Street, Concourse, Coney Island, East New York, Jamaica and Pitkin maintenance yards, plus five other non-maintenance storage yards. The six maintenance shops are responsible for performing daily subway car maintenance and inspection of 3,523 subway cars.</p><br>
<p>The 207th Street and Concourse yards are shared with the A Division and are listed in Yards in both divisions.</p><br>
<h3>174th Street Yard</h3><br>
<p>The 174th Street Yard is an underground rail yard on the IND Eighth Avenue Line that is used to store trains. The yard has five tracks to the east of the two mainline passenger service tracks. The yard is located six blocks north of 168th Street and adjacent to 175th Street. The inner tracks at 168th Street lead towards the yard and are used by terminating C trains. This yard can hold only four trains of ten 60-foot cars or eight 75-foot cars and one four-car train of 60-foot cars among the five tracks. The northern end of the yard is against a concrete wall and a cinder-block wall adjacent to the Trans-Manhattan Expressway, as the line was originally intended to go over the George Washington Bridge&#39;s lower level as a part of a possible extension to Fort Lee, New Jersey.</p><br>
<h3>Canarsie Yard</h3><br>
<p>The Canarsie Yard (also known as AY or Atlantic Yard from its telegraphy letters) is located on the south end of the BMT Canarsie Line adjacent to Canarsie–Rockaway Parkway. Opened on October 26, 1917, it is the primary layup yard for the R160s and R143s on the train and hosts the only car wash for the BMT Eastern Division.</p><br>
<p>New signals were installed in 2003 in conjunction with the BMT Canarsie Line automation project.</p><br>
<h3>Church Avenue Yard</h3><br>
<p>The Church Avenue Yard is an underground rail yard on the IND Culver Line that is used to store trains for service. It is composed of four tracks directly under the four main line tracks above. This yard is directly connected through the line&#39;s Church Avenue station which is the southern terminus for G service. At least one of the yard&#39;s four tracks is in continuous use to reverse equipment to the opposite direction. There are two ramps between each local and express track south of Church Avenue station for access. Each track can hold one full-length train between the bumper blocks and the crossovers.</p><br>
<h3>Coney Island Complex</h3><br>
<p>The Coney Island Rapid Transit Car Overhaul Shop, often shortened to Coney Island Complex, is the largest rapid transit yard in the state of New York, and one of the largest in North America. Located in Brooklyn, New York, it covers 74 acre and operates 24/7. The complex was built in 1926 on former marshlands that, along with Coney Island Creek, used to separate Coney Island from the main body of Brooklyn. Much of this land had originally been proposed for use as a ship canal and port facility.</p><br>
<p>A car washing machine was installed in the yard at the end of 1964.</p><br>
<p>Regular scheduled maintenance is performed here for a fleet of nearly 800 cars of R46s, R68s, R68As, serving the , , , , and Franklin Avenue Shuttle. R68s on the , and R160s on the and routes, are stored at the yard but are not maintained or inspected here. The shop facility, along with the 207th Street Shops, performs inspections, heavy maintenance and overhaul for every one of the approximately 6,000 cars in the subway system, including the Staten Island Railway, and also contains car washing and painting facilities.</p><br>
<p>In addition to heavy maintenance facilities and track facilities for cars undergoing maintenance and overhaul, the complex includes three related railroad storage yards. The main yard facility, known as Coney Island Yard, includes direct connections to the adjacent BMT Sea Beach Line and a two-track elevated structure to the BMT West End Line . The main yard also serves trains on the BMT Brighton Line via tracks C & D (also known as 3 & 4, respectively) of Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue station. The adjacent but separate Culver Yard (also called City Yard or Avenue X Yard) connects to the IND Culver Line at the eastern border of the yard complex, holding cars for the F service. Another yard, the Stillwell Yard, used mainly for off-peak train storage, is located across the Sea Beach Line from the main yard complex in a wye between the divergent Sea Beach and West End Lines.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the maintenance shop and yards, there is a Health Center (gym) and medical center for Transit Authority employees, a firing range for the New York City Police Department (NYPD)&#39;s Transit Division, and a firefighting training school. The range was originally built for the New York City Transit Police Department, which was merged with the NYPD in 1995.</p><br>
<p>The Coney Island Yard Electric Motor Repair Shop and Coney Island Yard Gatehouse were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006.</p><br>
<h4>Gatehouse</h4><br>
<p>Coney Island Yard Gatehouse is a historic gatehouse located at the Coney Island Complex. It was built about 1929 and is a small masonry building with prominent clay tile roof with deep overhanging eaves.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006.</p><br>
<h4>Electric Motor Repair Shop</h4><br>
<p>The Coney Island Yard Electric Motor Repair Shop is a historic motor repair shop for subway trains located at the Coney Island Complex. It was built between 1925 and 1927 and is a simple two-story, box-shaped brick-clad building lit by multiple banks of large, multi-paned windows and a massive sawtooth skylight.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006.</p><br>
<h3>East New York Yard</h3><br>
<p>East New York Yard (also known as DO (District Office) Yard from its telegraphy letters) is primarily used to store the R143s used on the and J/Z, R160s used on the , , , and , and R179s used on the , , and . Subway equipment is inspected and maintained here on a regular basis.</p><br>
<p>It is located at the junction of the Canarsie and Jamaica Lines near the intersection of Broadway and Jamaica Avenue in East New York, Brooklyn. A separate part of the facility houses the East New York Bus Depot, formerly a trolley depot. The yard is entirely equipped with hand-operated switches. Only the Fresh Pond Yard and 36th–38th Street Yard share this characteristic.</p><br>
<p>Portions of the yard date back to 1885 and the Lexington Avenue Elevated and the yard predates the rebuilding of nearby Broadway Junction, which used to be known as Manhattan Junction or East New York Loop. This yard&#39;s layup tracks are situated on 2 different levels, just like 239th Street Yard.</p><br>
<p>The yard and its main lead configuration remained the same before and after the extensive elevated line rebuilding nearby, but additional track and structure was built, so that, at its peak, East New York Yard had direct connections to the Broadway Elevated going west, Jamaica Line going east, Canarsie Line going east, and Fulton Street Elevated both east and west.</p><br>
<h3>Fresh Pond Yard</h3><br>
<p>The Fresh Pond Yard in Ridgewood, Queens is located to the back of the Fresh Pond Bus Depot, which was formerly a trolley depot. it is normally used for storing the R160As & R179 that run on the . General maintenance of the cars is performed at East New York Yard. It is located between Fresh Pond Road and Middle Village–Metropolitan Avenue on the BMT Myrtle Avenue Line, but it is only accessible from the latter station. Trains must first platform there and then reverse into the yard. The yard is entirely equipped with hand-operated switches. Only East New York Yard and 36th–38th Street Yard share this characteristic.</p><br>
<h3>Jamaica Yard</h3><br>
<p>Jamaica Yard is located in Forest Hills, Queens at the southern end of Flushing Meadows–Corona Park near the Kew Gardens Interchange. It has served as the primary storage yard for the IND Queens Boulevard Line since its opening in 1936. The yard connects to the Queens Boulevard Line at a three-way flying junction just geographically north of the Kew Gardens–Union Turnpike station. The yard is at surface level, and the four-track approach includes a bridge over the Grand Central Parkway; though the Queens Boulevard Line is underground, the yard lies at a lower elevation than the subway.</p><br>
<p>The property on which the yard sits used to belong to the Department of Water Supply, Gas, and Electricity, and it was transferred to the New York City Board of Transportation on April 2, 1930. The property was used as a pumping station, and once the Board of Transportation acquired the property, wells that were abandoned on the property were disturbed. These wells were connected to the water mains serving Forest Hills, Kew Gardens, and part of Flushing. $50,000 was appropriated to replace these water wells and mains by the Board of Estimate. Originally, the yard was intended to be built in the vicinity of South Elmhurst and Rego Park at Grand Street and Queens Boulevard. Once the location near Union Turnpike was decided, the communities of Forest Hills and Kew Gardens objected to it, arguing that the values of their properties would go down and the growth of the communities would end. Chairman of the Board of Transportation, John H. Delaney, overruled them, as the yard&#39;s location was not near any homes.</p><br>
<p>The yard was built for the Independent Subway System in the 1930s. Work was half finished on Jamaica Yard in April 1935, and the total cost of Jamaica Yard and storage sheds was approximately $560,000. Jamaica Yard served as the south end of the IND World&#39;s Fair Line which served the 1939 New York World&#39;s Fair from 1939 to 1940. In August 1964 it was planned that Jamaica Yard have car-washing machines installed in May 1965. The yard is home to the 5-car sets of R160s, assigned to the , , , and , whose carwash, interior cleaning, grease and minor repair services are provided by the yard. Some R160As for the are stored here as well during weekdays, but are not maintained here, as the M uses shorter, four-car sets maintained at East New York Yard.</p><br>
<p>There are more subway cars assigned to Jamaica Yard than to any other rapid transit yard in the city. As a result, there is chronic overcrowding at the existing facility. The Metropolitan Transportation Authority plans to enlarge this yard due to this overcrowding; many trains are stored on the IND Queens Boulevard mainline express tracks east of 71st Avenue and the 179th Street station&#39;s relay yard during off-peak periods. This expansion will double the storage capacity of the facility.</p><br>
<h3>Pitkin Yard</h3><br>
<p>The Pitkin Yard is located in East New York, Brooklyn. It holds the Pitkin Shops, which maintain the R46s used on the , , and Rockaway Park Shuttle, the R179s used on the and Rockaway Park Shuttle, and the R211s used on the and .</p><br>
<p>Track connections from the yard connect both railroad north to Euclid Avenue and railroad south past Grant Avenue on the IND Fulton Street Line. This allows trains to be added or removed from service in either direction.</p><br>
<p>The site for Pitkin Yard was approved by the Board of Estimate on February 8, 1940 in order to serve the extension of the Fulton Street Line. The total cost for the acquiring the property for the yard was estimated to be $773,000 for 30 acres. The yard opened on November 28, 1948 along with the extension of the IND Fulton Street Line to Euclid Avenue. Previously an open-air yard, from 1972 to 1973, the Linden Plaza & Towers Apartment Complex, consisting of several 15-to-17-story apartment buildings, was constructed on a concrete deck on top of this yard.</p><br>
<h3>Rockaway Park Yard</h3><br>
<p>Rockaway Park Yard is located in Rockaway Park, Queens. It is an eight-track layup yard for the R46s, R179s and R211s on the A and the Rockaway Park Shuttle, although they are primarily maintained at the Pitkin Yard in Brooklyn. Seven tracks lie geographically north of the station platform, while another lies geographically south.</p><br>
<p>This yard is adjacent to Rockaway Park–Beach 116th Street. Like the IND Rockaway Line itself, the Rockaway Yard was originally a yard for the Rockaway Beach Branch of the Long Island Rail Road. It included a water tower and a roundhouse.</p><br>
<h2>Yards in both divisions</h2><br>
<h3>207th Street Yard</h3><br>
<p>The 207th Street Yard is located in Inwood in Upper Manhattan between Tenth Avenue and the Harlem River north of the University Heights Bridge. The outdoor yard, which was originally constructed for the B Division, extends north from 207th Street to 215th Street. It serves as the home yard for the R179s that are used on the . There is a car wash here.</p><br>
<p>The 207th Street Shop is one of two heavy overhaul shops in the New York City Subway system (the other being the Coney Island Yard in Brooklyn) and it provides for the overhaul and rebuilding of some A Division cars as well as most B Division rolling stock. It also contains a garbage transfer station. Formerly, the retired cars that were stored at the yard were stripped of usable parts such as seats and doors, historic memorabilia such as rollsigns, and toxic materials such as lubricants and asbestos, after which the cars were scrapped or sunk into artificial reefs such as Redbird Reef.</p><br>
<p>South of the yard, connecting tracks lead to the IND Eighth Avenue Line. A separate connecting track and flyover leads to the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line.</p><br>
<p>A major rehabilitation project for the yard took place in 2016.</p><br>
<h3>Concourse Yard</h3><br>
<p>The Concourse Yard is located in the northern Bronx near the intersection of 205th Street and Jerome Avenue. The yard was built on the old site of the Jerome Park Reservoir. The Reservoir was planned to have two basins, an eastern basin and a western basin. The western basin opened in 1906. The two basins are divided by Goulden Avenue, and land for the eastern basin was cleared and partially excavated in anticipation of construction. The two-basin plan was abandoned in 1912, and the excavated area for the eastern basin was filled and graded. In addition to the building of the subway yard on that site, Lehman College, three high schools, a park, and several public housing developments were also built there. The yard was built at a depressed grade, 18 feet below grade, to allow for the yard to be roofed over to allow for the construction of buildings. The tracks were spaced apart to permit the placing of stable foundations and columns to support buildings that can could be erected atop the proposed roof of the yard. The yard was originally bounded by Navy Avenue (now Paul Avenue), Jerome Avenue, 205th Street, and Bedford Park Boulevard. Provisions were made to extend the yard south to 198th Street.</p><br>
<p>In the 1960s, the City University of New York planned to build a new campus for Bronx Community College by constructing a deck over the yard. In 1970, ground was broken for the $61 million, 13-acre campus, which was going to rest on 800 columns between the yard tracks. The platform over the yard was expected to be completed in July 1971. The project was abandoned after the City discovered that the pillars were built slightly too short, which would have prevented subway cars from entering and leaving the yard had the project been finished. The possibility of building atop the yard was brought back by Bronx Borough President Ruben Diaz Junior in 2015. In a report, the yard was found to have great potential for development, allowing for the building of mixed-income housing, retail space, and an expansion of Lehman College. The low-end cost for the construction of the deck is projected to be $350 to $500 million.</p><br>
<p>This yard is home to the R68s assigned to the service. Some R68s and R68As assigned to the are also washed and stored here, but not maintained or inspected here. The R142s and R142As assigned to the are washed and stored here as well. The yard contains three tracks for maintenance, and 36 storage tracks. The yard itself can store 255 cars, and the inspection shed can accommodate 30 cars. The latter is a one-story brick building measuring 50 feet by 100 feet and featuring a brick parapet with ornamental limestone and aluminum doors.</p><br>
<h2>Other yards</h2><br>
<h3>36th–38th Street Yard</h3><br>
<p>The 36th–38th Street Yard, sometimes referred to as simply the 38th Street Yard, is located between Fifth and Seventh Avenues in Sunset Park, Brooklyn, adjacent to the Jackie Gleason Bus Depot and the Ninth Avenue station of the BMT West End Line. Green-Wood Cemetery lies to the north of the yard. This yard is not normally used for revenue-service train maintenance. Its primary function is to store diesel and electrically powered maintenance-of-way and other non-revenue service rolling stock. It is also used to transfer trash from garbage collector trains to trucks via platforms inside the yard just south of 37th Street. There is a control tower for the West End Line at the south end of the yard. The yard is entirely equipped with hand-operated switches. Only Fresh Pond Yard and East New York Yard share this characteristic.</p><br>
<p>The Metropolitan Transportation Authority plans to enlarge, and modernize this yard to accommodate, inspect and maintain additional revenue service trains here, due to chronic overcrowding at their other existing main facilities,</p><br>
<p>This southern part of the yard used to be the center of the South Brooklyn Railway (owned by the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company), which extended from Bush Terminal through the north part of the yard, then down Gravesend Avenue and into the Coney Island Yard. What is now the Jackie Gleason Bus Depot was formerly the site of a train inspection shed.</p><br>
<h3>Linden Shops</h3><br>
<p>Linden Shops is a track shop, where track switches and other components are assembled. It has track connections to the IRT New Lots Line and the BMT Canarsie Line, but no third rail, restricting the facility to diesel-powered trains only. There is also a track connection to the Long Island Rail Road&#39;s Bay Ridge Branch. This connection is one of two from the subway to the mainline United States rail network (the connection between the BMT West End Line and the South Brooklyn Railway is the other).</p><br>
<h3>Clifton Yard</h3><br>
<p>The Clifton Yard is the sole yard on the Staten Island Railway, and is located next to the Clifton station. Heavy maintenance of equipment is performed at the Clifton Yard. As there is no connection from the passenger portion of the Staten Island Railway to the mainline U.S. railroad network or the subway, the R44s and R211S cars on the Staten Island Railway must be trucked over the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge to Coney Island Yard if they need maintenance that Clifton Yard cannot perform. Additional storage for revenue trains is located adjacent to the Tottenville station at the south end of the line, while maintenance of non-revenue trains is performed at a Maintenance of Way shop near the Tompkinsville station.</p><br>
<p>Fort Phil Kearny was an outpost of the United States Army that existed in the late 1860s in present-day northeastern Wyoming along the Bozeman Trail. Construction began in 1866 on Friday, July 13, by Companies A, C, E, and H of the 2nd Battalion, 18th Infantry, under the direction of the regimental commander and Mountain District commander Colonel Henry B. Carrington.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The post was named for Major General Philip Kearny (1815–1862), a popular figure in the Civil War. The fort should be distinguished from the similarly named Fort Kearny in Nebraska, which was named for his uncle, Stephen Kearny (1794–1848). Today, the fort and the nearby Fetterman and Wagon Box battle sites are maintained by the State of Wyoming as the Fort Phil Kearny State Historic Site.</p><br>
<p>The fort was located along the east side of the Bighorn Mountains in present-day northern Johnson County, approximately 15 mi north of Buffalo. Along with Fort Reno and Fort C. F. Smith, the fort was established along the Bozeman Trail in the Powder River Country at the height of the Indian Wars to protect prospective miners traveling the trail north from the Oregon Trail to present-day Montana.</p><br>
<p>At an elevation of 4,700 ft above sea level, Fort Phil Kearny was the largest of the three stockaded fortifications along the trail. Its 8 ft log walls enclosed an area of 17 acre. The longer walls on the northeast and southwest sides each measured 1,496 ft in length; the width of the northwest side was 600 ft and this tapered to 240 ft at the southeast side. The perimeter of the stockade was approximately 3,900 ft, and its construction took more than four thousand logs. Further building construction in 1867 required over 606,000 board feet of lumber and 130,000 adobe bricks.</p><br>
<p>The fort was under continuous construction and was nearing completion in December 1866, when its garrison was due to be re-designated the 27th Infantry. At its peak strength, the garrison numbered 400 troops and 150 civilians: 9 officers, a surgeon, and 329 enlisted men of five infantry companies of the 18th/27th Infantry, including the newly recruited Company K, 27th; one officer and 60 men of Company C, 2nd Cavalry, and 150 civilian quartermaster and contractor employees.</p><br>
<p>The fort, known to the Indians as the "hated post on the Little Piney", played an important role in Red Cloud&#39;s War. The area around the fort was the site of the Fetterman Fight in 1866 and the Wagon Box Fight in 1867. By 1868, the Union Pacific Railroad had reached far enough west that emigrants could reach the Montana gold fields through present-day Idaho, rendering the dangerous Bozeman Trail obsolete. All three forts along the trail were abandoned as part of the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868). Shortly thereafter, Fort Phil Kearny was burned by Cheyenne Indians.</p><br>
<p>Fort Phil Kearny, including the nearby sites of the Fetterman Fight and the Wagon Box Fight, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960.</p><br>
<h2>Fort Phil Kearny State Historic Site</h2><br>
<p>Fort Phil Kearny State Historic Site includes a visitor center with exhibits, videos, a bookstore, and self-guided tours of the fort grounds and outlying sites. The tour marks the archaeological remains of the forts buildings. A cabin built by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) has been furnished to depict the period quarters of an officers wife and a non-commissioned officer&#39;s quarters. Visitors can also tour the nearby battlefields which are located within a five-mile radius of the visitor center and include interpretive trails.</p><br>
<p>In 1966, NBC televised "The Massacre at Fort Phil Kearny" on the anthology series Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre.</p><br>
<p>Fort Phil Kearny was also the subject of the 1951 movie Tomahawk starring Van Heflin, by Universal International (UI) Pictures. The Internet Movie Database (IMDb) called the movie unusually accurate historically. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0044135/</p><br>
<p>Irishtown Bend is the name given to both a former Irish American neighborhood and a landform located on the Flats of the west bank of the Cuyahoga River in the city of Cleveland in the USA state of Ohio in the United States. The landform consists of a tight meander in the Cuyahoga River, and the steep hillside above this meander.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood of Irish immigrants and Irish Americans emerged about 1830. Portions of the area became industrial in the late 1800s. By 1900, most Irish residents had left the area, and it became an Eastern European immigrant enclave. The neighborhood went into significant decline for several reasons, and what little remained of it was razed at the end of the 1950s.</p><br>
<p>No commercial or residential buildings existed at the site by the 1980s, when archeological digs began. In 1990, a portion of the site, known as the Irishtown Bend Archeological District, was added to the National Register of Historic Places. Beginning in 2006, efforts began to stabilize the soil of Irishtown Bend, preserve the archeological history of the site, and convert the area into a park, with construction beginning in 2023.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>During the Mesozoic Era and until the end of the Tertiary period of the Cenozoic Era, the preglacial Teays River and Dover River carved most of the ancient Cuyahoga River valley into the Devonian and Permian bedrock of Ohio. At least four major glacial periods covered Ohio in ice during the last two million years. The glaciers that swept over the land left behind unsorted till and sorted outwash. Between 25,000 and 14,000 years ago, the Wisconsin glaciation blocked the Dover River&#39;s northward flow. Water backed up, until it began to flow southward along the course of the ancestral Tuscarawas River. As the ice sheet retreated, it left behind a recessional moraine near Akron, Ohio. The ice sheet retreated further, then made a minor advance. This advance left behind another recessional moraine near Defiance, Ohio. These moraines acted like dams, trapping water between them. The ephemeral lakes that formed laid down extensive deposits of clay and silt. Streams flowing down the sides of the moraines left behind alluvial fans and deltas. This left the ancient Dover River valley buried beneath as much as 500 ft of various types of soil. About 10,000 years ago, several streams joined together north of the Defiance moraine and eroded their way through the buried Dover River valley to Lake Erie. Headward erosion eventually breached both the Defiance and Akron moraines and tapped into the southward flowing Tuscarawas River. As water levels receded, the northward-flowing Cuyahoga separated from the Tuscarawas (which still flows southward to this day).</p><br>
<p>Irishtown Bend reflects the complex geology created over the last 252 million years. The Devonian shale bedrock of the area is overlain by 40 to 60 ft of compact glacial till, followed by 20 to 30 ft of stiff clay, 30 ft of weak clay, 20 ft of silt, 10 ft of sand, and 10 to 20 ft of fill dirt. These layers cause the hillside to be unstable. About 15 ft above the mean water line, the shear strength is 1,000 psf, while at the top of the hill the shear strength is 2,000 psf. Geological data indicate that the hill is sliding into the river at a rate of about 2 in per year.</p><br>
<p>Extensive fill dirt was placed on the slope from the late 1950s to the early 1960s. This increased pressure on the soil below, turning what had been a dormant or slow slide into an accelerated one. Regrading of the hillside occurred afterward, after which significant slope instability began.</p><br>
<p>Fault scarps (ranging in size from a few inches to several feet) exist at the top of the slope (where the slope meets the West Side Plateau) and along Franklin Avenue. Since about 2004, subsidence and the emergence of medium fault scarps have occurred along Riverbed Street to the water, indicating the failure of the toe of the slope (likely due to failure of 1950s-era bulkheads) and increased water in the soil. There is evidence that a failure plane exists about 100 ft behind the surface of the hillside.</p><br>
<h2>Emergence and disappearance of the neighborhood</h2><br>
<p>The Irishtown Bend landform is located on the west bank of the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio. It runs from Columbus Road downstream to the Detroit-Superior Bridge, a distance of about 2,500 ft. It extends from the shore of the Cuyahoga River up the hill to Franklin Avenue and W. 25th Street. The summit of the west side plateau is roughly 100 ft above the river.</p><br>
<h3>Formation of the neighborhood</h3><br>
<p>The Irishtown Bend neighborhood was part of a larger Irish enclave in Cleveland known as "the Angle". The other section of the Angle was bounded by W. 28th Street, Division Avenue, and the river. People of Irish descent first settled in Cleveland in large numbers about 1825. Most of the men had been workers on the Erie Canal, and as work on the canal ended they settled in Cleveland and moved their families to the small but growing town. Anti-Irish discrimination was strong, and the Irish were forced to settle on high ground along the shores of Lake Erie near the mouth of the Cuyahoga. This area, which later became known as Whiskey Island, was a peninsula which in 1827 was cut off by the creation of a new mouth of the Cuyahoga River. In the 1830s, the rapidly-expanding Cleveland economy had drawn more Irish to the area, doubling the size of the enclave and establishing "the Angle" as an adjunct to the Irish community on Whiskey Island.</p><br>
<p>Irishtown Bend emerged as a residential community for Irish immigrants in the 1850s after the Great Famine of Ireland caused a massive wave of Irish immigration to the United States. By 1870, 10 percent of Cleveland&#39;s 100,000 residents were Irish. Nearly all the residents of Irishtown Bend after 1850 were predominantly unskilled laborers. Eighty residential parcels were laid out by the city.</p><br>
<h3>The shanty town myth</h3><br>
<p>Irishtown Bend is frequently referred to in the press and popular histories as a "shanty town". Nelson J. Callahan and William F. Hickey, historians of Cleveland&#39;s Irish community, state that nearly all the homes in Irishtown Bend were "shanties" (shacks), their riverside ends built on stilts over the steep ground.</p><br>
<p>Archeological evidence from a Cleveland Museum of Natural History investigation in the 1980s indicates a starkly different picture of solidly built wood frame homes, built on level ground and many with concrete or stone foundations. The neighborhood was working class, not poor, and most homes were "1 or 2 story, single family, frame structures." One excavated structure (probably from the 1850s or 1860s) featured a look-out basement with walls of dressed sandstone and a brick floor. A poor widows home (built prior to 1872) had a brick foundation and wood frame construction, and was two stories high. It also had two wood frame outbuildings, each with a foundation. A semi-skilled dockworkers home (built prior to 1852) exhibited a deep foundation and a false facade of commercially manufactured brick. A middle-class professional worker&#39;s house had a sandstone foundation and wood frame construction, and was two and a half stories high. The limited photographic evidence available also indicates a community of well-constructed homes on level ground. Descriptions of the area as a "shantytown" appear to be rooted in anti-Irish sentiment, rather than fact.</p><br>
<h3>Shift to an Eastern European enclave</h3><br>
<p>Between 1860 and 1880, the nature of Irishtown Bend had changed. Instead of Irish immigrants, most residents of the area were first-generation Irish Americans. Beginning in 1880, Irish residents were displaced by immigrants from Eastern Europe, primarily Hungarians. Although Irish Americans continued to own most of the land at Irishtown Bend, fully half the residents of the area were of Eastern European descent by 1900. By this time, Irish Americans still living in Irishtown Bend were skilled or semi-skilled workers, and the new immigrant residents of the neighborhood appear to have chosen the Bend as their new home because they, too, were skilled or semi-skilled. At its height, Irishtown Bend had 119 buildings, including 78 residences housing 138 families.</p><br>
<h3>Abandonment and demolition</h3><br>
<p>Beginning about 1898, Irishtown Bend began to be abandoned as residents moved into better homes elsewhere and strict national immigration limits meant there were few immigrants to replace them. A third of all residences had been demolished by 1912. Many more were vacant, and a number of temporary shacks were erected. The 80,000 ft&sup2; Lederer Terminal Warehouse opened at 1530 Riverbed about 1920.</p><br>
<p>A Hooverville grew up on the largely vacant Irishtown Bend in the 1930s. Most oral histories and written descriptions depicting housing here as a "shanty town" date to this period.</p><br>
<p>Only five homes still stood in the area in 1952, and all of these had long been vacant. A garage made of concrete block was built at Irishtown Bend between 1952 and 1954, but this appears to be the only new construction in several decades. What was left of Irishtown Bend was razed in the mid to late 1950s.</p><br>
<h2>Other infrastructure at Irishtown Bend</h2><br>
<h3>Railroad and associated infrastructure</h3><br>
<p>The Cleveland and Mahoning Railroad (C&M; later the Cleveland and Mahoning Valley Railroad) was founded in 1848 and authorized to build a line from Cleveland to Warren, Ohio, and then into Pennsylvania. The railroad intended to connect with the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad in Cleveland, but a crossing of the Cuyahoga was never effected. The Atlantic and Great Western Railroad leased the C&M in July 1863, and agreed to complete the line within the Cleveland city limits. Work on a new passenger depot at the Scranton Flats began in August 1863, and the tracks to the new depot were completed on November 4.</p><br>
<p>In March 1880, the Atlantic & Great Western emerged from bankruptcy as a new company, the New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio Railroad (NYP&O). In the spring of 1886, the NYP&O extended the old C&M route in Cleveland by crossing the base of the Scranton Peninsula, curving around Irishtown Bend, and crossing "the Angle" to reach and then bridge the Old Ship Channel. Trains began running July 4. Docks were built on either side of Columbus Road on Irishtown Bend. The rail yards extended for nearly 2 mi along the southwest bank of the Old Ship Channel, around Irishtown Bend, in Tremont, and east of Broadway Avenue in Cleveland&#39;s North Broadway and South Broadway neighborhoods. Docks were built just north of where the tracks curved westward to pass under Detroit Avenue.</p><br>
<p>The railroad built a new, steam-operated dock in 1912 near what is now the Detroit-Superior Bridge. It was designed by a local firm, Wellman Engineering. Traffic along the Cuyahoga River in this area was so extensive, the C&MV had a rail yard eight tracks wide along Irishtown Bend to accommodate it.</p><br>
<h3>Bulkheading the Bend</h3><br>
<p>The navigable Cuyahoga River in and near Cleveland has a number of exceptionally tight meanders. As Great Lakes freighters became increasingly larger near the end of the 1800s, these meanders became a hindrance to river traffic. The city of Cleveland the USA Army Corps of Engineers worked together over the next six decades to implement a plan to widen the river in a number of places, especially where the meanders were tight. Irishtown Bend was one of the key trouble spots. The first extensive cuts on the west bank of the river occurred in August 1940. Steel sheet bulkheads were driven vertically into the riverbed at the shoreline to help hold back the land above. The widening was only partially completed when World War II broke out and delayed completion of the project.</p><br>
<p>A 15-year postwar battle to win funding for completion of the river widening project finally concluded in the 1950s, and the west bank once more widened and bulkheaded in 1958.</p><br>
<h3>Sewers, bridges, and public housing</h3><br>
<p>Although records are scanty, a brick sewer was built along what is now Riverbed Street some time about 1900. In 1947, Cleveland sewer district engineers built a 60 in brick and concrete sewer tunnel known as the Westerly Low-Level Interceptor about 30 ft below Riverbed Street. The tunnel was poorly designed, and constructed in an area known to be prone to subsidence.</p><br>
<p>In 1914, construction began on the Detroit-Superior Bridge at the north end of Irishtown Bend. The railroad tracks ran beneath one of the arches of the bridge. The railroad dock was moved 200 ft upstream in 1917 to accommodate construction of the western abutments of the bridge.</p><br>
<p>In December 1959, the Cleveland Metropolitan Housing Authority (CMHA) purchased 22 acre of land along the Irishtown Bend with the intent of building public housing on the site. The area encompassed by the purchase was bounded by Bridge Avenue, W. 25th Street, Detroit Avenue, and the railroad tracks. Extensive fill dirt was placed on the slope from the late 1950s to the early 1960s, and the hillside regraded. The fill dirt reactivated and accelerated existing slides, and initiated several new ones.</p><br>
<p>Additional infrastructure changes on the hillside included relocated the intersection of Franklin Avenue and W. 25th Street farther north in 1965, and widening one-lane Riverbed Street to two lanes in 1985. The new eastern lane covered the main line of the now-removed railroad track.</p><br>
<h3>Damage due to soil slippage</h3><br>
<p>Problems with water saturating the northern end of Irishtown Bend and worsening the hills stability problems were first identified in 1960, when the Erie-Lackawanna Railroad tracks north of the Lederer Terminal Warehouse subsided significantly and had to be repaired. An investigation by the CMHA concluded that saturated soil was the culprit, and blamed either an unspecified nearby broken water line or an unknown natural spring. A landslide occurred in 1966, which was later attributed to water saturation caused by either a broken water main or sewer line. The following year, drains and a gutter were constructed from W. 25th Street down to the rivers edge to help guide runoff away from the slope. By 1989, extensive water seepage had begun to flow out of the hill and over Riverbed Street.</p><br>
<p>About 2004 or 2005, the Irishtown Bend hill began to subside at a significantly higher rate. In November 2005, major cracks appeared in Riverbed Street. The city repaved the street in January 2006, major cracks reappeared only two weeks later. The city ordered the street closed as a safety measure. Throughout 2007, the subsidence worsened, with the eastern half of Riverbed Street dropping by more than 4 ft.</p><br>
<p>After seven years and several studies, local authorities settled in February 2015 on a $49 million ($ in dollars) plan to stabilize the hillside. Road and sewer repair, the construction of a "lake link" trail through the area, and the establishment of a large new public park at Irishtown Bend were put on hold while funding was sought for the stabilization effort. Funds raised for the $28 million ($ in dollars) bulkhead restoration project totaled $10.5 million ($ in dollars) by November 2017, with several funding sources still being sought.</p><br>
<h2>Lake Link Trail and potential park</h2><br>
<p>In 1987, Dr. Alfred M. Lee, an archaeologist at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, began a three-year-long series of archaeological digs at Irishtown Bend.</p><br>
<p>The archaeological dig generated interest in preserving the site and making it accessible to the public. After two years of work by six governmental planning agencies, the Cuyahoga County Planning Commission released a report in April 1992 that recommended an 18 mi series of parks, protected areas, trails, and other new infrastructure to connect Lake Erie with the Cuyahoga Valley National Park to the south of Cleveland. The report advocated a series of biking and hiking trails at Irishtown Bend and "the Angle" to link the area with Whiskey Island to the north and the Ohio and Erie Canal Towpath Trail and other parks and trails in the south.</p><br>
<p>With the instability of the Irishtown Bend making it increasingly clear that the area should not be used for important infrastructure, the city of Cleveland, Cuyahoga County, several nonprofits, and landowners at Irishtown Bend began parallel discussions in 2006 about the future of the area and the abandoned railroad tracks. In January 2009, these groups issued a report, the "Flats Connections Plan", which advocated turning the abandoned trackbed between Kingsbury Run and Whiskey Island into a biking-hiking trail. The plan also included the construction of a new pedestrian bridge over the Old Ship Channel of the Cuyahoga River to reconnect the tracks with the old rail yard on Whiskey Island. Another of the plan proposed converting the Irishtown Bend hillside into a park, playgrounds, and wetlands.</p><br>
<h3>The Cleveland Foundation Centennial Lake Link Trail</h3><br>
<p>Initial design work for trail began in 2009. The Cuyahoga County Planning Commission took over planning for the pedestrian bridge linking the trail to Whiskey Island, and was considering four design finalists by October 2014. A design by Miguel Rosales/Schlaich Bergermann Partner/Osborn Engineering was chosen as the preferred alternative in June 2015.</p><br>
<p>The George Gund Foundation gave $2 million ($ in dollars) to the project in November 2011, and The Cleveland Foundation made a $5 million ($ in dollars) gift in August 2014. In honor of The Cleveland Foundation gift, Cleveland Metroparks (designer, builder, and eventual maintainer of the trail) said the path would be renamed the Cleveland Foundation Centennial Lake Link Trail.</p><br>
<p>The Cleveland Foundation Centennial Lake Link Trail was constructed in three phases. Work began on the south leg of the Cleveland Foundation Centennial Lake Link Trail (from the head of the Ohio and Erie Canal Towpath Trail to Columbus Road) in the fall of 2014, and it opened on June 9, 2017. Work on the middle section of the trail was delayed pending stabilization of the Irishtown Bend hillside.</p><br>
<p>Cleveland Metroparks said it would seek bids to build the Whiskey Island pedestrian bridge before the end of 2017, and hoped to complete work at the end of 2019.</p><br>
<h3>Potential park</h3><br>
<p>The Cleveland-Cuyahoga County Port Authority took the lead in identifying a solution for stabilizing the soil at Irishtown Bend in October 2012.</p><br>
<p>In 2009, the Corps of Engineers estimated that stabilizing the hillside would cost $219 million ($ in dollars). Ohio City Inc. (a nonprofit community development corporation) led the city of Cleveland, the Cleveland-Cuyahoga County Port Authority, and the nonprofit park advocacy group LAND Studio in a planning effort to begin the work of designing the park and the trail that would run through it.</p><br>
<p>Public meetings about the park design began to be held in June 2017.</p><br>
<p>A revised park design was unveiled in late August 2017. A primary entry plaza was planned for the intersection of Franklin Avenue and W. 25th Street, with a secondary entry plaza and cultural center near the Detroit-Superior Bridge. The proposed park had four zones. At the summit on the south was Ohio City Farms, which would be integrated into the park. North of the farms was a neighborhood park and playground. The hillside above Franklin Avenue and between Franklin Avenue and Riverbed Street would be a history zone, with boardwalks over excavated archeological sites. From Riverbed Street to the shoreline would be a riverfront zone, with pedestrian promenade and man-made wetland. Paths would zigzag across the park, connecting the zones. A 22 ft high canopy walkway in the neighborhood park and history zones would allow pedestrians to access residential areas on north of the park via an arch in the Detroit-Superior Bridge (rather than descending all the way to the riverbank or up onto W. 25th Street). The proposed park design was submitted to the Cleveland Planning Commission on September 1, 2017.</p><br>
<p>The state of Ohio approved $2.5 million ($ in dollars) to support stabilization of Irishtown Bend in March 2018, half what had been sought by backers of the park.</p><br>
<p>Cuyahoga County leased two acres (parcels 003-21-001 and 003-20-004) adjacent to the Superior Viaduct to the park planning organizations in April 2018. The terms of the lease are $1 per year, with an initial term of 25 years. It is renewable for an additional 50 years, up to a total of 99 years. The planning organizations have an option to buy, but the county will retain an easement to allow inspection of the former bridge.</p><br>
<h2>Irishtown Bend Archeological District</h2><br>
<p>The Irishtown Bend Archeological District is a historic site located on the Irishtown Bend.</p><br>
<p>Between 1987 and 1989, the Department of Archaeology at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History began excavations at the site of three former homes in the Irishtown Bend residential district. The histories of the three families were documented using archival and genealogical sources, and the artifacts from the sites revealed the economic status of each family.</p><br>
<p>The archaeological dig generated interest in preserving the site and making it accessible to the public.</p><br>
<p>The Irishtown Bend Archeological District was added to the National Register of Historic Places on May 25, 1990. It is bounded by Riverbed Street, Russia Street, Franklin Avenue, and Columbus Road. These streets (some of which no longer exist) defined the residential area during the 19th century. Construction of the Lederer Warehouse Terminal and CMHA public housing essentially destroyed any archeological evidence which may have existed north of Russia Street or west or south of Franklin Avenue. Remnants of coal docks on the Cuyahoga River shoreline on either side of Columbus Road and slightly downstream of Columbus Road, the coal tipple near the Detroit-Superior Bridge, and the foundations of the Lederer Terminal Warehouse still exist.</p><br>
<p>Much of the archeologically important evidence lies beneath 2 to 7.5 ft of soil. This soil comes from grading of land after the demolition of adjacent properties, soil pushed over the cliff onto the hillside during construction of the CMHA housing, illegal refuse and soil dumping, erosion, and possibly disturbances during squatter occupation of the site during the Great Depression. Despite being covered by fill dirt and regraded extensively, most archeologically important evidence still remains undisturbed in the historic district.</p><br>
<p>The Irishtown Bend Archeological District is not open to the public, but can be seen from Riverbed Road.</p><br>
<p>Christ Church Cathedral, Houston is the cathedral church for the Episcopal Diocese of Texas. The congregation was established in 1839, when Texas was still an independent republic. It is the oldest extant congregation in Houston and one of the oldest non-Roman Catholic churches in Texas. Many Episcopal churches in Houston and the surrounding area were founded as missions of Christ Church, such as Trinity Church, Houston, founded in 1893.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first known Episcopal clergy to preach in Houston was Reverend Richard Salmon, who arrived in Texas in 1836 and first visited Houston in 1838. At that time, the Texas government permitted church meetings in the Capitol Building since there were no churches yet established in Houston.</p><br>
<p>Christ Church was founded on March 16, 1839, making it the first chartered congregation in Houston. The principal founder of Christ Church was William Fairfax Gray. A native of Fredericksburg, Virginia, Gray was a vestryman of St. George&#39;s Church in that city. After passing the bar in Virginia in 1835, he traveled to Texas, where he worked as a land agent and helped to organize the interim Texas Revolutionary government. By 1837, he arrived in Houston with plans to establish a law office and moved his family there from Virginia.</p><br>
<p>The first permanent church building for Christ Church was erected in 1847, overseen by the rector, Charles Gillette. Located at the northeast corner of Texas Avenue and Fannin Street, Christ Church lay at the edge of town. The small Gothic church was clad in red brick and capped by a steeple. A gallery overlooked the nave with a wide central bank of pews, flanked by two smaller banks of pews. The Christ Church congregation increased in number so fast that the building was at capacity within a decade.</p><br>
<p>In 1857, Reverend W. T. D. Dalzell was appointed as the new rector and the vestry solicited subscriptions for the construction of a rectory. Bering Brothers constructed a main hall with two stories and two small wings fronting Texas Avenue, with a double gallery attached to the facade.</p><br>
<p>Located at 1117 Texas Avenue in Downtown Houston, the current building dates from 1893. In 1938 the building suffered a major fire. A firefighter sprayed down the ornately carved rood screen to prevent its destruction, and it survived with only minor damage. Everett Titcomb composed the anthem "Behold Now, Praise the Lord" for the rededication and centennial of Christ Church.</p><br>
<p>Christ Church became the cathedral of the diocese in 1949. Presently, Christ Church has a baptized membership of more than 3000 communicants.</p><br>
<h2>Clergy</h2><br>
<p>Christ Church&#39;s first rector was the Rev’d Charles Gillett of Connecticut. He led the congregation to build its first church building in 1845.</p><br>
<h3>List of missionaries</h3><br>
<p>Reverend Robert Martin Chapman, missionary (1838−1839)</p><br>
<p>Reverend Henry B. Goodwin, rector pro tempore (1839−1840)</p><br>
<p>Reverend Benjamin Eaton, missionary (1841)</p><br>
<h3>List of rectors</h3><br>
<p>Reverend Charles Gillett (1843−1852)</p><br>
<p>Reverend Henry Sampson (1852)</p><br>
<p>Reverend J.J. Nicholson (1854−1855)</p><br>
<p>Reverend W.T.D. Dalzell (1857−1861)</p><br>
<p>Reverend Edwin A. Wagner(1862−1864)</p><br>
<h2>Cathedral House Episcopal School</h2><br>
<p>The school opened in 1986 on the campus of Christ Church Cathedral with a philosophy grounded in the teachings of Maria Montessori. Classrooms include nursery, movement, toddler, primary and kindergarten.</p><br>
